Volume 4, Issue 1

Epigenetic modification of chromatin structure is an important mechanism in the regulation of gene expression. Recent studies have shown that dynamic regulation of chromatin structure occurs in response to neuronal stimulation associated with learning and memory. Learning-induced chromatin modifications include DNA methylation, histone acetylation, histone phosphorylation and histone methylation. Studies in animal models have used genetic and pharmacological methods to manipulate the epigenetic machinery in the brain during learning and memory formation. In general, these studies suggest that epigenetic regulation of chromatin structure is essential for long term memory (LTM) consolidation, which is known to require new gene transcription. Analysis of animal models has also implicated epigenetic mechanisms in impaired cognition associated with aging, neurodegenerative disease, and intellectual disability (ID). Recently, it has been shown that a subset of ID disorders and autism are caused by disruption of specific chromatin modification complexes that are involved in nuclear hormone receptor mediated transcriptional regulation. This review provides an overview of chromatin modifications that are implicated in learning and memory and discusses the role of chromatin modifying proteins in learning-induced transcriptional regulation and human cognitive disorders.

Since their discovery in 2004, histone demethylases have emerged as key regulators of chromatin. Recent studies have started to reveal the interconnections between histone demethylases and signaling pathways, suggesting that this interplay drives fundamental biological processes. Here, we summarize the different families and subfamilies of histone demethylases and the insights into the biological roles of these enzymes that have been provided by the analysis of mutant animals. We then review recent work linking demethylases and signaling pathways. These studies suggest that demethylase activities are a component of the critical connections that enable environmental signals to modulate the epigenetic landscape of a cell. A greater mechanistic understanding of the network of signals that control chromatin states during normal cellular processes, together with a better understanding of the ways that epigenetic alterations lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation, might help in the design of effective tools for cancer therapy.

Endogenous neurosteroids such as allopregnanolone, allotetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone, and androstanediol are synthesized either de novo in the brain from cholesterol or are generated from the local metabolism of peripherally derived progesterone or corticosterone. Fluctuations in neurosteroid concentrations are important in the regulation of a number of physiological responses including anxiety and stress, reproductive, and sexual behaviors. These effects are mediated in part by the direct binding of neurosteroids to γ-aminobutyric acid type-A receptors (GABA A Rs), resulting in the potentiation of GABA A R-mediated currents. Extrasynaptic GABA A Rs containing the δ subunit, which contribute to the tonic conductance, are particularly sensitive to low nanomolar concentrations of neurosteroids and are likely their preferential target. Considering the large charge transfer generated by these persistently open channels, even subtle changes in neurosteroid concentrations can have a major impact on neuronal excitability. Consequently, aberrant levels of neurosteroids have been implicated in numerous disorders, including, but not limited to, anxiety, neurodegenerative diseases, alcohol abuse, epilepsy, and depression. Here we review the modulation of GABA A R by neurosteroids and the consequences for health and disease.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a potent cellular system against viruses in various organisms. Although common traits are observed in plants, insects, and nematodes, the situation observed in mammals appears more complex. In mammalian somatic cells, RNAi is implicated in endonucleolytic cleavage mediated by artificially delivered small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) as well as in translation repression mediated by microRNAs (miRNAs). Because siRNAs and miRNAs recognize viral mRNAs, RNAi inherently limits virus production and participates in antiviral defense. However, several observations made in the cases of hepatitis C virus and retroviruses (including the human immunodeficiency virus and the primate foamy virus) bring evidence that this relationship is much more complex and that certain components of the RNAi effector complex [called the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC)], such as AGO2, are also required for viral replication. Here, we summarize recent discoveries that have revealed this dual implication in virus biology. We further discuss their potential implications for the functions of RNAi-related proteins, with special emphasis on retrotransposition and genome stability.

Among the three peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) transcription factors, PPARβ/δ is the isotype with the broadest expression pattern. In fact, the expression of PPARβ/δ is ubiquitous, albeit at levels that are tightly regulated. Herein, we reviewed its multiple functions in skin health and disease. PPARβ/δ has pro-differentiating effects in keratinocytes, regulates sebocyte differentiation, and promotes hair follicle growth in healthy skin. Furthermore, we reviewed novel insights into the roles of PPARβ/δ in skin wound healing, especially in inhibiting apoptosis and in modulating keratinocyte proliferation and migration. Therefore, PPARβ/δ represents a research target for the understanding and treatment of inflammatory skin diseases, such as psoriasis and acne vulgaris. In addition, PPARβ/δ is a tumor growth modifier. Epidemiological studies have established that tumor progression may be exacerbated by chronic low-grade inflammation, a condition promoting the production of the lipids that act as modulators of PPARβ/δ activity. The action of PPARβ/δ in skin cancer is ambivalent, which might be explained by this receptor’s putative highly context-specific behavior, which depends on a combination of factors ranging from receptor expression levels to co-regulator distribution, diversity and activity of the ligands produced, and other tissue-specific conditions. Given its diverse and crucial roles in many tissues and organs, PPARβ/δ will remain a major focus of future research.

Elastin is the protein responsible for the resilience of vertebrate tissue. It is an extremely stable protein deposited during the early stages of life and experiencing almost no renewal. As a consequence, it can be considered that each individual has an elastin capital for life. Despite its extreme stability, elastin can be degraded by several enzymes termed elastases. Elastases are among the most aggressive proteases, and their presence is increased with age. As a consequence, elastin fragmentation resulting in the generation of elastin peptides is one of the hallmarks of aging. This review will examine their nature and further expose our current understanding of the role played by these peptides in aging and their contribution to tissue homeostasis and several pathologies.

The aim of this review is to attempt to answer extremely important questions related to aluminium-related diseases. Starting from an overview on the main sources of aluminium exposure in everyday life, the principal aspects of aluminium metabolism in humans have been taken into consideration in an attempt to enlighten the main metabolic pathways utilised by trivalent metal ions in different organs. The second part of this review is focused on the available evidence concerning the pathogenetic consequences of aluminium overload in human health, with particular attention to its putative role in bone and neurodegenerative human diseases.

Eukaryotic cells show a remarkable compartmentalization into compartments such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus, the endoplasmic reticulum, and endosomes. However, organelle structures are not the only means by which specialized compartments are formed. Recent research shows a critical role for diverse actin filament populations in defining functional compartments, here referred to as microcompartments, in a wide range of cells. These microcompartments are involved in regulating fundamental cellular functions including cell motility, plasma membrane organization, and cellular morphogenesis. In this overview, the importance of two multigene families of actin-associated proteins, tropomodulins and tropomyosins, their interactions with each other, and a large number of other proteins will be discussed in the context of generating specialized actin-based microcompartments.