Null Direct Object Clitics in Basque Spanish: A Study Across Four Generations
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Ager Gondra
Abstract
The null direct object clitic is described as one of the distinctive morphosyntactic features of Basque Spanish (e.g., compré el libro i , pero se me ha olvidado traer øi). However, no study to date has explored the variable usage of this form in cross-generational terms. The present inquiry aims to fill this void by analyzing and contrasting the results of two studies by four generations of Spanish-Basque bilinguals with the following age ranges: 85–96 (Generation 1), 55–75 (Generation 2), 35–45 (Generation 3), 18–25 (Generation 4). The education level of the participants was also taken into consideration. The first study consisted of an acceptability judgment task, in which the participants rated the acceptability of sentences with a null direct object using a 5-point Likert scale. The independent linguistic variables in this study were the semantic features [+/-definiteness] and [+/-specificity]. The acceptance rate of null direct object clitics was significantly higher among Generation 1 and 2 speakers than among those of Generation 3 and 4, with no effect of definiteness or specificity. In the second study, based on an elicitation task, older speakers (Generation 1 and 2) produced significantly more null direct object clitics than their younger counterparts (Generation 3 and 4). By contrasting the differential behavior of the participants across and within the same generation, it is shown that the generational effects observed are mainly due to the participants’ different levels of formal education.
| a. | Where did you learn Basque? (at home with the family, in the street, at school, other) |
| b. | How old were you when you started learning Basque? (0–3, 4–7, 7–12, 13 or older) |
| c. | Where did you learn Spanish? (at home with the family, in the street, at school, other) |
| d. | How old were you when you started learning Spanish? (0–3, 4–7, 7–12, 13 or older) |
| e. | Where was/is your mother from? |
| f. | Where was/is your father from? |
| g. | How satisfy are you with your Spanish level? (Very satisfy, quite satisfy, regular, little satisfy, not satisfy at all) |
| h. | How satisfy are you with your Basque level? (Very satisfy, quite satisfy, regular, little satisfy, not satisfy at all) |
| i. | What language do you use in a regular day? (Always Spanish, more Spanish than Basque, half Spanish half Basque, more Basque than Spanish, always Basque) |
| j. | What is your highest education level? (no primary education, primary education, secondary education, or higher education) |
Tokens:
| [+spec/-def] | |
| a. | - Tengo una pastilla que me ayudará dormir. |
| -‘I have a pill that will help me sleep.’ | |
| - No tomes. Te va a hacer mal. | |
| - ‘Don’t take (it). It will do you bad.’ | |
| b. | Compré un cuadro de Goya que quería desde pequeña y colgué en la entrada de mi casa. |
| ‘I bought a picture of Goya that I wanted since childhood and hung (it) at the entrance of my house.’ | |
| c. | Como tenía una duda en clase, le he preguntado al profesor. |
| ‘As I had a question in class, I asked (it) to the teacher.’ | |
| d. | Hemos perdido un libro de la biblioteca y ahora la secretaría nos va a decir que tenemos que reemplazar. |
| ‘We have lost a book from the library and now the secretariat is going to tell us that we have to replace (it).’ | |
| e. | Rompí una de mis piezas favoritas de ajedrez y tuve que arreglar con pegamento. |
| ‘I broke one of my favorite chess pieces and had to fix (it) with glue.’ | |
| [-spec/+def] | |
| a. | Ha llegado el correo esta mañana, pero no hemos abierto. |
| ‘The mail has arrived this morning, but we have not opened (it).’ | |
| b. | No me gustan las camisas, pero tengo que llevar por el trabajo. |
| ‘I don’t like shirts, but I have to wear (them) for work.’ | |
| c. | El vino no es solamente para beber. Yo uso para cocinar también. |
| ‘Wine is not just for drinking. I use (it) to cook too.’ | |
| d. | El crucigrama es mi juego favorito, aunque nunca llego a completar. |
| ‘The crossword puzzle is my favorite game, although I never get to complete (it). | |
| e. | Todos los días mi padre compra el periódico y deja en su despacho. |
| ‘Every day my father buys the newspaper and leaves (it) in his office.’ | |
| [+spec/+def]. | |
| a. | -¿Le has dado el regalo a Miren? |
| - ‘Have you given the present to Miren?’ | |
| - No, todavía no le he dado. | |
| - ‘No, I haven’t given (it) to her yet. | |
| b. | - ¿Dónde has comprado esa blusa? |
| - ‘Where did you buy that blouse?’ | |
| - He comprado en Corte Inglés. | |
| - ‘I bought (it) in Corte Inglés.’ | |
| c. | A Miguel le he contado yo la historia, y a mí me ha contado Maite. |
| I have told Miguel the story and Maite has told (it) to me’ | |
| d. | No encuentro el paquete que traje el otro día. No sé dónde he podido poner. |
| ‘I can't find the package I brought the other day. I don't know where I could have put (it). | |
| e. | - ¿Le has comprado la pelota que te dije? |
| - ‘Have you bought the ball that I told you?’ | |
| - Sí, ya le he comprado. | |
| - ‘Yes, I have already bought (it) to him.’ | |
Fillers:
| a. | Marcos ha dicho que llegará antes que María. |
| ‘Marcos has said that he will arrive before María.’ | |
| b. | Javi quiere planchar la ropa antes que salir de fiesta. |
| ‘Javi wants to iron the clothes before going out to party.’ | |
| c. | No me puedo creer que ninguno de los testigos se atreviera a decir la verdad. |
| ‘I can't believe any of the witnesses dared to tell the truth.’ | |
| d. | Mejor descasar que estresarse demasiado. |
| Better to rest than to stress too much.’ | |
| e. | - ¿Sabes qué helado prefiere María? |
| - ‘Do you know what ice cream Maria prefers?’ | |
| - Prefiere el helado de chocholate que el de fresa. | |
| - He/she prefers chocolate ice cream over strawberry ice cream | |
| f. | - No me siento bien. |
| ‘I don’t feel well.’ | |
| - Si estás enfermo, quedarte en casa es más recomendable que ir al trabajo. | |
| ‘If you are sick, staying home is more recommended than going to work.’ | |
| g. | Esperaremos aquí hasta la puesta de sol. |
| ‘We will wait here until sunset.’ | |
| h. | El presidente aseguró que se habían acabado los recortes. |
| ‘The president assured that the cuts had been finished.’ | |
| i. | - ¿Sabes cúando arrestarón al sospechoso? |
| -‘Do you know when the suspect was arrested? | |
| - Sí, arrestaron al sospechoso en enero. | |
| -‘Yes, the suspect was arrested in January.’ | |
| j. | La diestista aseguró que era bueno que comiera verduras. |
| ‘The dietician assured that it was good that he/she ate vegetables.’ | |
| k. | El conductor casi tuvo un accidente. |
| ‘The driver almost had an accident.’ | |
| l. | - ¿Qué dijo Pedro? |
| - ‘What did Pedro say?’ | |
| - Dijo que fue de excursión con sus amigos. | |
| - ‘He/she said he/she went hiking with his/her friends.’ | |
| m. | El maestro les explicó a los estudiantes que la guerra terminó en 1939. |
| ‘The teacher explained to the students that the war ended in 1939.’ | |
| n. | - Mi amiga no va a ir a la fiesta. |
| - ‘My friend is not going to the party’ | |
| - Mi amigo tampoco no voy a ir. | |
| - ‘My friend will not go either.’ | |
| o. | La maestra hizo una pregunta, pero nadie sabía la respuesta. |
| ‘The teacher asked a question, but no one knew the answer.’ |
| Acceptability | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | |
| Descriptive Statistics Generation 1 | |||||||||||||||
| Valid | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Mean | 4.933 | 4.667 | 4.733 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.933 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.933 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.933 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 |
| S.D. | 0.258 | 1.047 | 0.799 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.258 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.258 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.258 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Minimum | 4.000 | 1.000 | 2.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 |
| Maximum | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 |
| Descriptive Statistics Generation 2 | |||||||||||||||
| Valid | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Mean | 4.467 | 4.267 | 5.000 | 2.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 2.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 |
| S.D. | 1.060 | 1.223 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Minimum | 2.000 | 2.000 | 5.000 | 2.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 2.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 |
| Maximum | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 2.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 2.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 |
| Descriptive Statistics Generation 3 | |||||||||||||||
| Valid | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Mean | 2.600 | 2.267 | 3.467 | 2.000 | 2.200 | 2.200 | 2.667 | 2.733 | 2.133 | 2.333 | 3.333 | 2.333 | 2.800 | 2.133 | 3.400 |
| S.D. | 1.502 | 1.534 | 1.457 | 1.069 | 1.424 | 1.474 | 1.496 | 1.534 | 1.302 | 1.589 | 1.676 | 1.496 | 1.656 | 1.407 | 1.724 |
| Minimum | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| Maximum | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 |
| Descriptive Statistics Generation 4 | |||||||||||||||
| Valid | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Mean | 2.200 | 2.200 | 2.267 | 2.133 | 2.067 | 2.067 | 1.867 | 1.933 | 1.933 | 2.000 | 2.267 | 1.933 | 1.867 | 1.933 | 1.867 |
| S.D. | 1.014 | 1.474 | 0.961 | 0.990 | 1.335 | 1.280 | 0.834 | 1.033 | 1.223 | 1.464 | 1.163 | 1.387 | 1.060 | 1.163 | 1.246 |
| Minimum | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| Maximum | 4.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 3.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 | 4.000 | 5.000 | 5.000 |
| Part. | Education | 5-Point Likert Scale |
|---|---|---|
| Generation 1 | ||
| P1 | NoEd | 4.9 |
| P2 | Prim | 4.7 |
| P3 | NoEd | 4.7 |
| P4 | Prim | 5.0 |
| P5 | Prim | 5.0 |
| P6 | NoEd | 4.9 |
| P7 | NoEd | 5.0 |
| P8 | NoEd | 5.0 |
| P9 | NoEd | 4.9 |
| P10 | NoEd | 5.0 |
| P11 | NoEd | 5.0 |
| P12 | NoEd | 4.8 |
| PI3 | NoEd | 5.0 |
| P14 | Prim | 5.0 |
| P15 | NoEd | 5.0 |
| Generation 2 | ||
| P1 | NoEd | 4.5 |
| P2 | Prim | 4.3 |
| P3 | NoEd | 4.9 |
| P4 | Prim | 4.3 |
| P5 | Prim | 4.6 |
| P6 | Prim | 4.5 |
| P7 | See | 3.7 |
| P8 | Prim | 4.8 |
| P9 | Prim | 3.9 |
| P10 | Sec | 3.5 |
| P11 | Prim | 4.7 |
| P12 | Prim | 4.2 |
| PI3 | Sec | 3.8 |
| P14 | Prim | 4.4 |
| P15 | HighEd | 2.8 |
| Generation 3 | ||
| P1 | HighEd | 2.6 |
| P2 | Sec | 2.3 |
| P3 | HighEd | 3.5 |
| P4 | HighEd | 2.0 |
| P5 | HighEd | 2.2 |
| P6 | Sec | 2.2 |
| P7 | HighEd | 2.7 |
| P8 | Sec | 2.7 |
| P9 | HighEd | 2.1 |
| P10 | Sec | 2.3 |
| P11 | Sec | 3.3 |
| P12 | HighEd | 2.3 |
| PI3 | Sec | 3.4 |
| P14 | Sec | 2.1 |
| P15 | HighEd | 2.8 |
| Generation 4 | ||
| P1 | HighEd | 2.1 |
| P2 | Sec | 2.2 |
| P3 | HighEd | 2.3 |
| P4 | Sec | 2.1 |
| P5 | HighEd | 2.1 |
| P6 | Sec | 2.1 |
| P7 | HighEd | 1.9 |
| P8 | Sec | 1.7 |
| P9 | Sec | 1.9 |
| P10 | Sec | 2.0 |
| P11 | Sec | 2.3 |
| P12 | HighEd | 1.9 |
| PI3 | HighEd | 1.8 |
| P14 | Sec | 1.9 |
| P15 | Sec | 2.0 |
| 1. | ¿Qué tiempo hace afuera? |
| ‘What is the weather like outside?’ | |
| 2. | ¿Qué está haciendo la mujer en este dibujo? |
| ‘What is the woman doing in this picture?’ | |
| 3. | Y aquí, ¿qué hace la mujer con el libro? |
| ‘And here, what is the woman doing with the book? | |
| 4. | Y luego va a la cocina, y en este dibujo ¿qué hace con la harina? |
| ‘And next she goes to the kitchen, and in this picture, what is she doing with the flour?’ | |
| 5. | Ella va al gallinero y ¿qué hace con los huevos? |
| ‘She goes to the henhouse and what does she do with the eggs?’ | |
| 6. | Entonces ella va al establo, y ¿qué hace el gato? |
| ‘Then she goes to the barn, and what does the cat do?’ | |
| 7. | ¿Cómo se siente la mujer mientras prepara la mantequilla? |
| ‘How does the woman feel while she makes the butter?’ | |
| 8. | ¿Cómo consigue el jarabe? |
| ‘How does she get the syrup?’ | |
| 9. | Cuando la mujer entra en la casa, ¿dónde está la leche? |
| ‘When she enters her house, where is the milk?’ | |
| 10. | ¿Qué hace el vecino cuando ve a la mujer en la puerta? |
| ‘What does the neighbor do when he sees the woman at the door?’en |
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Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Gender Assignment Strategies Among Simultaneous Spanish/English Bilingual Children from Miami, Florida
- Pronominal Feature Re-assembly: L1 and L2 Pronoun Resolution of Spanish Epicene and Common Gender Antecedents
- Tuteo, Effeminacy and Homosexuality: Change and Continuity in Costa Rican Spanish
- Null Direct Object Clitics in Basque Spanish: A Study Across Four Generations
- Spanish and Ladino in Contact in the United States
- First-Person Plural Subject Pronoun Expression in Mexican Spanish Spoken in Georgia
- Copula Choice is Associated with Discourse Integration Skills in Spanish-Speaking Children
- El diptongo/hiato como rasgo contrastivo: un estudio perceptual con hablantes de herencia de español
- Book Review
- Gabriel Rei-Doval and Fernando Tejedo-Herrero: Lusophone, Galician, and Hispanic linguistics. Bridging frames and traditions
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Gender Assignment Strategies Among Simultaneous Spanish/English Bilingual Children from Miami, Florida
- Pronominal Feature Re-assembly: L1 and L2 Pronoun Resolution of Spanish Epicene and Common Gender Antecedents
- Tuteo, Effeminacy and Homosexuality: Change and Continuity in Costa Rican Spanish
- Null Direct Object Clitics in Basque Spanish: A Study Across Four Generations
- Spanish and Ladino in Contact in the United States
- First-Person Plural Subject Pronoun Expression in Mexican Spanish Spoken in Georgia
- Copula Choice is Associated with Discourse Integration Skills in Spanish-Speaking Children
- El diptongo/hiato como rasgo contrastivo: un estudio perceptual con hablantes de herencia de español
- Book Review
- Gabriel Rei-Doval and Fernando Tejedo-Herrero: Lusophone, Galician, and Hispanic linguistics. Bridging frames and traditions
