Unraveling Conversational Implicatures: A Study on Arabic EFL Learners

1 Introduction

Conversational implicature has long been a cornerstone in the realm of linguistic pragmatics, initially conceptualized by Paul Grice in his seminal work. The Cooperative Principle he proposed and the four maxims – quality, quantity, relevance, and manner – are foundational for understanding how speech often operates in zones of implication rather than explicit declaration. This framework effectively shapes how language users navigate complex communicative landscapes despite not strictly adhering to these maxims. When speakers intentionally sidestep or flout these maxims, they create what Grice termed conversational implicatures. These implicatures offer a rich layer of meaning that often encompasses irony, sarcasm, or other forms of indirect messaging based on the context in which they are deployed (Camp, 2012; Çiftlikli & Demirel, 2022).

Brown and Levinson (1987, p. 100) present an illustration to elucidate this implicature:

A: Where is Bill?

B: ‘There’s a yellow VW outside ‘Sue’s house.

In their given instance, speaker B deliberately disregards the quantity and relevance maxims by failing to answer speaker A’s question directly. However, this lack of cooperation prompts us to establish a connection between B’s statement and A’s inquiry. As a result, we infer that if Bill possesses a yellow VW, he might be present at Sue’s house. This inference represents a conversational implicature. The subtlety of conversational implicature reveals itself when an indirect reply gives birth to an entirely new layer of understanding.

Research by Bouton (1988) demonstrated that non-native speakers of English tend to struggle with interpreting implicatures, suggesting that there is a developmental aspect in the ability to understand and produce implicatures in a second language. Moreover, a study by Roever (2005) also highlighted that tests aiming to assess second language learners’ pragmatic competence, which includes implicature understanding, can have strong predictive validity for more generalized language skills. In a related vein, Taguchi (2002) found that second-language learners’ comprehension of implicatures significantly improves with increased exposure and targeted instruction. This finding underscores the pedagogical importance of understanding conversational implicatures for second-language acquisition.

In light of these empirical findings, identifying conversational implicatures enriches our understanding of text, be it oral or written, and holds considerable weight in second language learning and translation. Baker and Saldanha (2009) amplify this point, emphasizing the role of implicature identification in facilitating the translation process. Their study showed that a Tunisian Minister was asked “what were the contents of the letter you handed to King Fahad?” His reply implied “this is a matter solely for the Saudis to consider.” Having failed to understand the implicature, the interpreter translated the sentence literally as “This matter concerns the Saudis.” The interpreter failed to convey the utterance’s pragmatic meaning, which clearly suggested that the minister did not want to discuss the contents of the letter. The English journalist who asked the initial question felt encouraged to keep the same line of questioning and was rebuked a second time, but more explicitly. Pragmatic competence is crucial to avoid miscommunications in real-life situations. In line with Baker’s earlier works (1992), Baker and Saldanha (2009) assert that a firm grounding in linguistics, pragmatics, and cultural understanding is indispensable for both language users and translators.

The influence of conversational implicatures also permeates the world of entertainment, particularly in sitcoms where humor is often derived from the strategic use of implicatures. This correlates with Leech’s (1983) argument that humor frequently capitalizes on the manipulation of social norms, linguistic conventions, and shared cultural understandings. In light of this complex and nuanced landscape, our current study aspires to make a unique contribution by focusing on Arab students majoring in English Language and Literature at a public university in the UAE. This demographic has not been significantly covered in the existing literature, thereby opening an avenue for new insights. The principal research question we seek to answer is: To what extent do Arab students majoring in English at a governmental institution in the UAE comprehend conversational implicatures, particularly when Grice’s (1975) conversational maxims are intentionally flouted?

We believe that this research is particularly timely and relevant for several reasons. First, it fills an important gap in the literature by focusing on a specific heterogeneous linguistic and cultural cohort – Arab English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Second, it aims to provide educators with empirical data that could inform pedagogical strategies for teaching implicature comprehension and pragmatics in EFL settings. Third, it looks at implicature comprehension from a cross-cultural perspective, offering valuable insights into how cultural factors might influence the understanding and use of implicatures. Furthermore, this research study employs natural dialogues as a methodological approach, thereby offering a targeted investigation into humor comprehension and everyday conversational understanding. By addressing these facets, the study hopes to offer a multidimensional view that can enrich academic discourse and practical applications in language education, cross-cultural communication, and translation studies, thereby enhancing the pedagogical approaches for teaching pragmatics and implicature comprehension in an EFL environment.

2 Literature Review

Understanding the comprehension of implicature among non-native speakers of English is a nuanced undertaking that has gathered considerable attention in applied linguistics and pragmatics. Researchers have delved into various dimensions, employing diverse methodologies and various contexts, such as cultural context, proficiency levels, and types of implicature (See Bouton, 1988; Mohammadzadeh et al., 2019; Sağdıç, 2021; Taguchi, 2002, 2005). This review aims to dissect these studies to identify common threads, divergences, and gaps that inform the current investigation.

Evaluating how well nonnative English speakers understand implicatures is a key to studying pragmatics. A variety of studies have employed diverse methods and approaches to gauge the comprehension of implicatures in this population. For example, Bouton (1988) serves as a critical starting point by introducing the cultural background as a significant factor in decoding implicatures and suggesting the multiple-choice test as an assessment tool. This raises questions about the universal applicability of implicature comprehension and points toward the need for culturally sensitive pedagogical tools. Taguchi’s work (2002, 2003, 2005, 2008) builds on and complicates Bouton’s findings. Taguchi does not only acknowledge the role of cultural background and proficiency but also adds an extra layer of complexity by introducing implicature types: formulaic and idiosyncratic. She extends the discussion by employing computerized tests and zeroing in on how different types of implicatures – indirect opinions and indirect refusals, in particular – are decoded differently by learners. While proficiency significantly influences accuracy, its effect on comprehension speed is mixed, offering a multidimensional view of how proficiency can impact implicature comprehension.

Rizaoğlu and Yavuz (2017) also contribute a unique perspective by using multiple-choice and written discourse completion tasks, thus combining Bouton’s methodological approach and adding another layer. Their focus on L2 Turkish students and the implication that familiarity with the cultural values of the target language influences implicature comprehension echoes Bouton’s original point about the role of culture. Their findings also resonate with Taguchi’s in that the type of implicature impacts comprehension, although they introduce the idea that formulaic implicature can be decoded more easily when learners are familiar with the cultural context. Formulaic implicatures are the inferences or meanings that come from commonly used expressions frequently manifesting in the form of idiomatic phrases. These implicatures rely on our shared understanding of language and cultural norms rather than solely deriving from the literal meanings of the words themselves. For example, ‘Do you have a watch?’ implies that the speaker is asking about the time. Similarly, Pratama et al. (2017) underscore the role of proficiency and introduce language exposure as an influencing factor. The study’s findings align with Taguchi’s work on the impact of proficiency but add a different dimension by examining the setting of an Indonesian university, implicitly expanding the cultural contexts in which these findings hold true.

In a recent study on Saudi EFL learners, Alharbi (2022) sets his study apart by emphasizing the cultural gap between English and Arabic. While previously mentioned studies are more generalized or focus on other variables, Alharbi points directly to the lack of focus on the pragmatic aspects of language in English curricula, employing a mixed-method approach that includes a discourse completion test, interviews, and questionnaires for deeper insights. The findings showed that EFL learners faced difficulties understanding implicatures. Certain types, such as quantity and quality, were more problematic than manner or relation. The study suggests including pragmatic aspects in language teaching and curriculum design.

In line with the previous research findings, Mohammadzadeh et al. (2019) and Sağdıç (2021) explore the factors affecting implicature comprehension. However, they focus on different variables. Sağdıç's study is broad in scope, investigating how proficiency, length of residence, and interaction contribute to the comprehension of L2 implicatures among 68 participants. The research indicated that proficiency is the most significant predictor, trailed by interaction intensity and length of residence, with less proficient learners facing greater challenges. On the other hand, Mohammadzadeh et al. (2019) look at the influence of gender, proficiency, and age among prospective English teachers. Unlike Sağdıç's (2021) findings, where proficiency stood out, Mohammadzadeh et al. (2019) find that while proficiency is important, age also has an impact, whereas gender does not significantly affect implicature comprehension. Both Koÿlü (2018) and Kentmen et al. (2023) delve into the relationship between proficiency and implicature comprehension but differ in their methodologies; Kentmen et al. employ a multiple-choice discourse test and a discourse completion test, while Koÿlü relies on an oral production task. Koÿlü (2018) demonstrates that higher proficiency levels correlate with a better understanding of conversational implicatures. The analysis of the incorrect answers provides valuable insights into the difficulties students face in decoding implicature meanings. Koÿlü’s findings align with those of Kentmen et al. (2023), emphasizing the significance of pragmatic instruction in EFL classrooms to address cultural appropriateness challenges. Both studies converge on the need for targeted instruction but for slightly different reasons – Kentmen et al. focus on conversational implicatures, while Koÿlü emphasizes cultural appropriateness.

In a related vein, Derakhshan and Eslami (2020) investigate the effects of pragmatic awareness and training on the comprehension of implicatures among upper-intermediate Iranian EFL students., using video extracts containing implicatures from an American TV series, an angle less pronounced in Kentmen et al. (2023) and Koÿlü's (2018) works. Their study revealed that students who receive pragmatic training, participate in interactive translation activities, and engage in discussions outperform the control group. In summary, these studies collectively underscore the multifaceted nature of implicature comprehension among non-native English speakers and highlight the importance of considering various contextual factors in pedagogical approaches to improve pragmatic competence. Other studies have directed their focus toward the intersection between implicatures and humor.

Since our present research examined Arab EFL learners’ comprehension of implicature employing an American comedy sitcom, it is essential to survey the research conducted on the relationship between humor and implicature. Scholarly research on humor and implicature sheds light on their interconnectedness and illustrates how implicatures are employed to generate humor across various contexts. For example, Abdalhakeem and Mubarak (2019) and Huang (2020) probe into American sitcoms – Two Broke Girls and Still Standing, respectively – to investigate how implicatures contribute to humor. Abdalhakeem and Mubarak explore the role of conversational implicatures in generating humor within the American sitcom Still Standing. Their investigation demonstrates that implicatures play a pivotal role in humor creation, as speakers deliberately imply meanings that extend beyond the literal interpretations of their words. The study effectively conveys that utilizing implicatures constitutes an efficacious means of engendering humor within everyday conversations.

Along the same lines of research, Huang (2020) conducted a study centered on the creation of verbal humor in the popular American sitcom Two Broke Girls. By scrutinizing instances where the Cooperative Principle is flouted, the research elucidates how such flouting can engender humorous effects, effectively showcasing the intimate relationship between humor and implicature. Both studies, therefore, coalesce around the idea that conversational implicatures are essential tools in generating humor, albeit through different analytical lenses. In a divergent approach, Yulianti et al. dissect the types of conversational implicatures used in the Saturday Night live talk show, categorizing them as particularized or generalized. Their analysis amplifies the role of context and speaker intent in the choice of implicature types for comedic effect, a dimension not explicitly touched upon by either Abdalhakeem and Mubarak (2019) or Huang (2020).

The studies reviewed above collectively contribute to the nuanced understanding of implicature comprehension among nonnative English speakers. They employ various methodologies and contexts, including cultural background, proficiency levels, and implicature types. Bouton’s work (1988) introduces cultural factors and multiple-choice tests, while Taguchi (2002, 2005) adds complexity by considering different implicature types. Rizaoğlu and Yavuz (2017) emphasize cultural familiarity’s role. Pratama et al. (2017) expand the cultural context to Indonesian universities by surveying students with different levels of exposure to the English language. Alharbi (2022) stands out for its mixed-methods design, which enables the collection of student feedback through a questionnaire. Mohammadzadeh et al. (2019) and Sağdıç (2021) explore factors like proficiency, interaction, and age. Kentmen et al. (2023) and Koÿlü (2018) delve into proficiency and pragmatic instruction. Derakhshan and Eslami (2020) highlight the impact of pragmatic training. The intersection of humor and implicature, as presented in the study by Abdalhakeem and Mubarak (2019) and Huang (2020), reveals implicatures’ role in generating humor. Yulianti et al. (2022) add context and speaker intent dimensions. Despite this wealth of research, there is still a gap in understanding implicature comprehension among Arabic-speaking EFL learners in non-English-speaking environments. This research study addresses this gap by directing attention toward everyday conversational implicatures prevalent in American media, thus contributing to an enriched scholarly discourse within the field.

To conclude, the existing body of literature presents a plethora of methods for evaluating implicature comprehension among nonnative English speakers, ranging from multiple-choice tests and Discourse Completion Tasks to more specialized approaches like implicature comprehension tests. These studies also illuminate the roles of varying factors, such as cultural background, language proficiency, and exposure in shaping this comprehension. While evidence suggests that pragmatic awareness and training can improve implicature understanding, a notable gap remains in the research, particularly concerning Arabic-speaking English learners who have not lived in an English-speaking environment, thus adding a layer of cultural and linguistic complexity. Our study, therefore, seeks to fill this gap by introducing a test specifically designed to evaluate implicature comprehension in this demographic, using a corpus drawn from the American TV sitcom Seinfeld. Unlike much of the existing research, which mainly focuses on implicatures in the context of humor, our study aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of how Arabic-speaking students comprehend implicatures in everyday conversations depicted in American media. Therefore, our research not only expands upon pragmatic research but also diversifies it by addressing the unique challenges faced by Arabic-speaking students in the UAE in comprehending conversational implicatures.

3 Methodology

3.3 Data Collection and Data Analysis

To evaluate the comprehension levels of Arab EFL learners concerning conversational implicatures, the research team designed a 20-item online MCQ Implicature Comprehension Test. A pilot study was conducted on five EFL learners from the English Department. These learners were asked to elucidate the implicatures found in specific utterances within the test items. Three options for each question were given: two distractors and one accurate implicature.

The test was revised based on the answers obtained from the pilot study. The draft version of the test was then subjected to a further validation process by asking three native English speakers with more than 20 years of teaching experience in teaching literature at the university level to assess the test’s efficacy in gauging implicature comprehension. Specifically, they were tasked with confirming whether the designated correct answers genuinely reflected the intended implicatures within the underlined portions of text. Modifications were made to the test based on the insights from these seasoned educators, resulting in its finalized version. A sample item from this final test is depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Sample implicature comprehension test item.

The actual testing phase involved administering this final version of the test to the student participants via Google Forms, where the utterances, which included implicature were underlined. The 45-min test was administered during a classroom session under the supervision of one of the researchers. The students were directed to use the supplied information and dialogue excerpts to identify the most suitable answer choice representing the implicature. Upon completion, their responses were gathered and subjected to analysis to assess their test performance.

The researchers relied on the following percentage-based grading scale to assess the level of understanding of students:

• 0–24%: Poor

• 25–49%: Fair

• 50–74%: Satisfactory

• 75–89%: Very good

• 90–100%: Excellent

4 Results and Discussion

5 Discussion and Conclusion

This research delved into the realm of implicature comprehension among Arab EFL learners enrolled in a UAE university. The outcomes of this investigation shed light on a slightly below-average level of implicature comprehension among the participants, unveiling a notable pragmatic challenge. This has been documented in many studies conducted on implicature. This deficiency in pragmatic competence can primarily be attributed to the participants’ relatively low proficiency in the English language and their limited exposure to certain facets of the American culture.

The previous research has underscored the importance of integrating pragmatic aspects into language instruction and curriculum design due to EFL learners’ challenges in understanding implicatures, with variations in difficulty observed across different types (Alharbi, 2022). In a similar vein, there is a strong relationship between EFL learners’ proficiency level and implicature comprehension (Kentmen et al., 2023; Koÿlü, 2018). Importantly, the findings underscore that while the participants demonstrated competence in apprehending the literal meanings of utterances, they grappled with the more intricate and nuanced implications arising from the flouting of Grice’s conversational maxims. Students’ cultural background may offer insights into their challenges when selecting the preferred implicature in the test. As conceptualized by Kramsch, culture is “difference, variability, and always a potential source of conflict when one culture enters into contact with another” (1993, p. 1). Culture influences our perception of others and their actions. For instance, consider utterance 8: You know, it doesn’t look as if your friend is coming. Sixty percent of surveyed students interpreted this as Kramer forgetting to pick up his friends, failing to perceive the hosts’ frustration at having Jerry and Elaine at their place at 2 am, knowing the party was already over. Arab societies, when contrasted with North American and European cultures, were characterized by collectivism as prioritizing the “private self” (Darwish & Huber, 2003; Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). Given the emphasis on solidarity in Arab culture, it may feel uncomfortable for an Arab individual to ask guests to leave or to convey unwelcome sentiments. As Sobh et al. noted, “Protecting guests, entertaining them, and properly feeding them was and is still considered essential in many Arab societies” (2013, p. 447). In this specific instance, it appears that students projected their shared cultural background onto the protagonists’ actions.

Among the flouted conversational maxims, it became evident that the maxim of manner posed the most substantial challenge for the learners, with a mere 35.34% of the sample successfully inferring implicatures accurately. Flouting the maxim of manner can result in statements that appear ambiguous, misleading, vague or incomplete (ellipsis) (Brown & Levinson, 1987, p. 214). Therefore, EFL learners may find it challenging to discern the intended meaning when faced with such expressions, as they may need to consider alternative interpretations. However, the implicatures stemming from flouting the maxim of relation proved to be relatively more accessible, with 46% of learners successfully extracting the implicatures. The maxim of relation can present comprehension challenges for EFL learners. This is because how people express themselves might sometimes come across as unclear or unrelated to the topic. Consequently, learners may need to dig a bit deeper to grasp the intended meaning. This challenge can be attributed to their limited pragmatic competence in navigating such subtleties. Nonetheless, it is noteworthy that the maxims of quality and quantity exhibited varying degrees of success in elucidating the intended implicatures within the chosen scenarios. Specifically, the maxim of quantity yielded a commendable success rate of 55.32%, marking the highest level of proficiency in comprehending implicatures. Conversely, the maxim of quality achieved a success rate of 50%, signifying a moderately successful performance in understanding the implications conveyed in the five scenarios. This outcome could be attributed to the presence of irony, which perplexed certain students as it presents the contrary of what is stated. EFL learners may have scored high levels of comprehension of the maxim of quantity as the intended meaning was obvious by the surplus of information within the utterances. This observation appears to conflict with the findings of Alharbi (2022), who identified the maxim of quantity as particularly challenging for Saudi students. However, differences in methodology and data collection methods between studies may contribute to this disparity in results. Alharbi (2022) employed a questionnaire adapted from the work of Bouton (1988), whereas the present research utilizes a sitcom that portrays everyday dialogues. This observation is intriguing and warrants further exploration to understand the underlying factors contributing to this discrepancy in implicature comprehension.

The implications of these findings hold substantial pedagogical significance for EFL learners, educators, translators, and curriculum designers alike. It is discernible that Arab EFL learners, particularly those enrolled in English and Literature programs at UAE universities, would greatly benefit from enhanced training in pragmatic competence. In this endeavor, integrating materials from television shows like Seinfeld, which encapsulate authentic everyday language usage, can serve as a valuable resource for studying irony and humor through conversational implicatures. Koÿlü's (2018) and Kentmen et al.’s (2023) research highlights the importance of pragmatic instruction in addressing cultural appropriateness issues in EFL classrooms, while Derakhshan and Eslami’s (2020) study underscores the advantages of pragmatic training and interactive translation activities in improving student performance. Previous research has also shown that implicature plays a pivotal role in enacting humor (Abdalhakeem & Mubarak, 2019; Huang, 2020; Yulianti et al., 2022) and that flouting can generate humor, highlighting the strong connection between humor and implicature (Al-Sawaeer et al., 2022; Huang, 2020). The inclusion of such materials into the curriculum has the potential to nurture and cultivate the pragmatic competence of EFL learners. The consequences of failing to accurately interpret implicatures were evidenced by the misinterpretation of a reply from a Tunisian Minister during an interview, as highlighted by Baker and Saldanha (2009). This underscores the real-world repercussions of inadequate pragmatic competence.

Furthermore, it is imperative to recognize that the development of pragmatic competence is pivotal to preclude miscommunications in real-life scenarios. Therefore, a comprehensive approach that addresses EFL learners’ pragmatic competence alongside their linguistic and sociolinguistic proficiencies is essential in mitigating the risk of pragmatic failures. Equally crucial is the need to augment linguistic competence, enabling students to accurately convey the intended meaning of an utterance when translating or interpreting it into another language.

Considering the foregoing, this study underscores the critical importance of pragmatic competence in averting miscommunications, and it advocates for a holistic approach encompassing linguistic, sociolinguistic, and pragmatic competencies in the EFL learning journey (Al-Tamimi & Rabab’ah, 2007; Rabab’ah, 2015; Rabab’ah & Abuseileek, 2012; Abu Rumman & Rabab’ah; 2022; AbuSalim et al., 2022; Rabab’ah et al., 2022; Rabab’ah & Fowler Al-Hawamdeh, 2020). It is paramount to acknowledge that the significance of pragmatic competence extends beyond avoiding miscommunications; it encompasses the broader goal of effective and contextually appropriate communication in diverse real-world settings. This necessitates integrating pragmatics into EFL classrooms.

Finally, this study points toward several promising avenues for future research. While our study was limited to comprehension of implicature in American sitcoms, exploring diverse cultural and linguistic contexts could greatly enrich the field of pragmatics. A second potential area of inquiry could be how Arab EFL learners translate or interpret implicatures, elucidating their strategies and challenges when rendering implicatures into another language. Such an investigation can provide valuable insights into the intricacies of translation processes, especially concerning pragmatic elements. In addition, future research could explore the correlation between implicature comprehension and the quality of translated texts, assessing how accurately implicatures are conveyed in the translated materials. This line of inquiry has the potential to enhance our understanding of the interplay between pragmatic competence and translation quality, contributing to the refinement of translation practices and pedagogy.