Arabicization via Loan Translation: A Corpus-based Analysis of Neologisms Translated from English into Arabic in the Field of Information Technology

1 Introduction

The intersection of language and technology has always been fertile ground for linguistic adaptation and innovation. In our increasingly interconnected world, where information technology (IT) serves as a global lingua franca, the transfer of concepts and terminology across languages is both inevitable and essential for effective communication. This dynamic exchange often involves the process of Arabicization, whereby foreign terms and neologisms are incorporated into Written Standard Arabic (WSA) to meet the linguistic demands of contemporary domains, particularly in the realm of IT.

Arabicization (or ʔat-taʕri:b) refers to the process of transforming foreign concepts into WSA. It involves various methods, including the use of Arabic as the language for instruction and administration, the translation of knowledge from different fields into Arabic, the creation of Arabic scientific terms, and the adaptation of foreign elements into Arabic through lexical borrowing (Baker, 1987; Ghazala, 2012; Khasara, 1998). This process is crucial for ensuring that WSA remains relevant and functional in modern domains such as IT, where a significant portion of technical vocabulary originates from English and other languages. In this sense, Arabicization is an ongoing process that requires continuous improvement at both the institutional and individual levels.

One prominent technique employed in the Arabicization process is loan translation (LT), also known as calquing. LT is a specific type of loan shift, which refers to morphemic substitution without importation (Haugen, 1972). This approach retains the original meaning while incorporating it into the linguistic structure of the recipient language. As defined by Backus and Dorleijn (2009, p. 77), LT is “any usage of morphemes in Language A that is the result of the literal translation of one or more elements in a semantically equivalent expression in Language B.” Thus, LT involves the literal translation of foreign terms, often on a morpheme-by-morpheme basis, to create equivalents in the target language. Capuz (1997), Haspelmath (2009), Mott and Laso (2020), and Trask and Millar (2015) define LT in a similar way.

In this way, LT serves as an intermediary process between lexical borrowing and translation, as it combines both borrowing and translation techniques. In the field of IT, where terminology evolves rapidly to accommodate technological advancements, LT plays a vital role in bridging the gap between English and Arabic. For instance, terms such as saţħ ʔal-maktab < desktop, ʔašba:h ʔal-muwaşila:t < semiconductors, muħarrik ʔal-baħθ < research engine, ʔal-ʔamn ʔas-sibra:ni < cyber security, and kart ʔaš-ša:šah < graphics card are commonly translated into WSA using LT techniques. The meanings of these neologisms are foreign (from English), but the forms are native (from Arabic). Unlike LT, direct borrowing (or loanwords) refers to cases where the form and meaning of the donor language are adopted directly into the recipient language. Terms like fayru:s ‘virus’, ri:mu:t kunturu:l ‘remote control’, mikrufu:n ‘microphone’, and tiknulu:jiya ‘technology’ are examples of loanwords in Arabic. The topic of direct borrowing falls beyond the scope of this study; thus, loanwords will not be included in the analysis.

The concept of LT is also known in the literature as calquing or calques (Crystal, 2008; Thomason, 2001; Zabawa, 2017). Calques can be seen as a form of borrowing, wherein a language incorporates new concepts through literal translation without adopting the actual word forms from the foreign language. According to Ali (2005, p. 113), calque is “the direct (one-to-one) translation of the morphemic elements of a foreign word or phrase into the equivalent (semantically matching) morphemes in another language.” The above-mentioned examples such as saţħ ʔal-maktab < desktop, ʔašba:h ʔal-muwaşila:t < semiconductors, etc., are also instances of calquing. These definitions and examples of calquing indicate that calquing is only an alternative term for LT. Therefore, they will be used interchangeably throughout this study.

To sum up, LT or calquing is one of the most productive devices of Arabicization because the neologisms created by this technique are Arabic in their form and contribute to its purism, unlike other devices of lexical borrowing where the final products remain foreign. Ali (2005, p. 117) notes that calques “seem to be more readily acceptable in almost all languages [and] they represent an intermediate solution allowing source language meanings to be expressed through the use of TL elements.” The significance of LT in the process of Arabicization lies in its ability to strike a balance between linguistic fidelity and cultural relevance. By preserving the essence of foreign terms while integrating them into Arabic linguistic norms, LT ensures that Arabic remains a viable medium for expressing and discussing technological concepts.

LT is used to create terms in various fields such as economics and trade, politics and military, science and technology, media and sports, etc. Studies such as Ali (2005), Al-Wahy (2020), and Bader (1994) investigated LT neologisms in these domains to some extent. However, research on LT in the IT domain is still limited, possibly due to its recent and rapidly growing nature. This study, therefore, seeks to bridge this research gap by investigating LT in the IT domain. The study also explores the formal characteristics of LT, and the Arabicization strategies used to render English LTs into WSA.

2 Aims of the Study

This study aims to investigate the morpho-semantic structure of the Arabicized terms translated through LT. It attempts to elaborate on the different styles and strategies used in translating these terms. Putting it differently, the present study attempts to address the following research questions:

1. What are the different Arabicization strategies used in loan-translating English IT terms into WSA?

2. What kind of lexical variation do LTs have?

3. What are the possible factors that may influence the creation of new IT terms in WSA?

3 Theoretical Framework

Over the last seven decades, technological innovations, particularly in IT, have enhanced the creation of new terms in many languages through LT. Extensive research has been conducted on LT and IT terminology from both translational and linguistic perspectives across different languages, with notable studies by Bergh and Ohlander (2017), Bullock et al. (2021), Celiešienė and Juzeleniene (2020), Dimova (2007), González and Knospe (2019), Izwaini (2005), Solano (2012), and Zabawa (2017, 2022). These studies emphasized the significant role of English as a global language and a primary source for LTs.

Research on LT in Arabic within the IT domain remains limited. While some studies examined the creation of technical terms, they did not specifically address the LT phenomenon. For instance, Hamdan and Al-Salman (2021) focused on loanwords related to social media, Hassan (2017) analyzed terms from the Microsoft Terminology Collection, and Solimando (2017) discussed challenges in creating new IT terms. However, none of these studies thoroughly examined LT in Arabic within the IT domain.

In contrast, studies by Ali (2005), Al-Wahy (2020, 2022), Bader (1994), and Manfredi (2020) examined LT in Arabic. However, none of these studies investigated LTs in IT. Bader (1994) examined LTs in Jordanian news media from a lexical standpoint, listing examples related to politics, the military, economics, and science. Similarly, Ali (2005) studied calquing in standard Arabic in technical fields other than IT, identifying seven types of calques, and concluding that Arabic seems to prefer foreign-based neologisms to direct borrowing. Notably, Manfredi (2020) explored calquing in Arabic dialects used in non-Arab countries such as Nigeria and South Sudan, discussing its relation to Van Coetsem’s psycholinguistic principle of language dominance, which distinguishes between source-language agentivity and recipient-language agentivity.

Al-Wahy (2020, 2022) offered valuable insights into phraseology and contact linguistics, particularly regarding calqued phraseological units (PUs) from non-IT domains. Al-Wahy (2020) proposed an explanatory approach, analyzing patterns of lexical variation in PUs arising from phonetic, semantic, and cultural differences between languages. The study identified paradigmatic and syntagmatic variation types, influenced by factors like semantic transparency and cultural adaptation. Paradigmatic variation involves using different words or phrases in the same position within the PU, while syntagmatic variation occurs when a word or phrase is added to the PU. The study found that paradigmatic variation is much more common than syntagmatic variation. In contrast, Al-Wahy (2022) investigated the factors affecting the acceptance of Arabic Pus calqued from English, proposing a borrowability scale based on the degree of transparency, decomposability, and cultural compatibility of the units. He suggests that successful calquing depends on factors such as syntactic structure and sociocultural relevance. This scale aids in identifying easily calqued Pus and those requiring more adaptation.

Both studies make substantial contributions to phraseology and contact linguistics, providing insights into the nature and causes of lexical variation in Arabic calqued PUs.They also stress the significance of corpus-based methods and interdisciplinary perspectives in the study of PUs and their variability.

This study draws on the theoretical framework of Al-Wahy (2020, 2022) to account for lexical variations in IT terms calqued from English into WSA. By using this framework, the study aims to enhance the understanding of calquing and the factors affecting the borrowing of phrasal units in a specific linguistic context.

The previous review indicates that LT in the IT domain in Arabic still requires further attention and investigation. To date, no studies have specifically examined the linguistic and translational aspects of LT in this field. Therefore, this study seeks to fill this gap by exploring linguistic and translational issues related to LT, contributing to a deeper understanding of calquing challenges and effective strategies for successful LTs in this context.

4 Methodology and Data Collection

The study applied a qualitative method to deal with the LT data. Since the IT domain encompasses numerous sub-disciplines such as computer and the internet, the researcher collected a sample from all these domains. The data were gathered from written online sources, which were classified into four distinct types of corpora, as outlined in Table 1.

The selection of sources 5–7 was based on their direct relevance to the IT domain. These sources were specifically selected because they provide valuable information and terminology related to the field of IT. As for newspaper sources 1–4, newspapers often include sections dedicated to science and technology, making them potential sources for IT terms. Finally, source 8 holds significant importance as it serves as a major data source as well as a comprehensive search tool for determining the frequency of occurrence and frequency concordance. By utilizing this source, we were able to gather reliable data and analyze the frequency of LTs in a robust manner.

The first source comprised more than 250 texts collected from four online Arabic newspapers, including Asharq Alawsat and Sabq (KSA), Al-Ahram (Egypt), and Albayan (UAE), all of which feature IT sections. These texts were scanned in order to obtain the available LT data. The second source is the Microsoft Language Portal, which contains a vast collection of IT terms that enables users to search for terms in different languages. Thus, searches for English-Arabic pairs were performed and saved in TBX file format (Microsoft Term Collection.tbx). The third source refers to two user manuals for mobile phones and laptops containing the original texts in English along with an Arabic translation. These parallel texts facilitate extracting and collecting LT data.

The last source is the Arabic Corpus of King Abdul-Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST). It is a tremendous electronic searchable Arabic corpus that contains approximately one billion words. It enables users to search for Arabic words in their various contexts. KACST covers different historical periods of Arabic starting from the pre-Islamic period up to the modern age. However, for this study, the search is restricted to materials related to the modern period, specifically newspapers, news agencies, magazines, and the internet. The main purpose of using KACST is twofold: to validate and identify the contexts in which Arabic LTs are employed and to search for their frequency distribution and concordance.

All the online written sources listed above were navigated for data collection, resulting in the attestation of hundreds of IT terms. From these large number of data, we identified approximately 3,350 IT tokens. However, for this study, we focused only on a sample of 300 ITs, representing the most frequent and newly coined LTs used in the IT domain in Arabic. To select the terms for incorporation into the sample, we considered those that occurred ten times or more in the collected data. This was verified by checking their frequencies in the KACST database. Furthermore, when referring to newly coined terms, we specifically focused on IT terminology that entered the Arabic language during the last three decades of the twenty-first century – this period witnessed significant advancements in science and technology, leading to the emergence of new concepts and terminology. This sample was selected to provide a representative overview of the lexical and semantic structures of Arabic LTs.

The unit of analysis is the phrasal units calqued from English; the one-word LTs were excluded. Moreover, LT is usually categorized into two types: lexical calquing and grammatical calquing. Lexical calquing involves the transfer of semantic properties of lexical items, whereas grammatical calquing implies the transfer of functional properties of morphemes and syntactic constructions (Manfredi, 2020). This study focuses solely on lexical calquing rather than grammatical one, as the latter involves the borrowing of grammatical aspects at the sentence level, whereas the focus of this study is on phrasal units. Therefore, grammatical calquing is beyond the scope of this study.

5 Analysis and Results

With the help of the KACST corpus, the data were first examined to identify the main features of LTs. Then, the data were qualitatively analyzed to identify the Arabicization strategies used in calquing English terms into WSA, explore their lexical variations, and understand the linguistic and non-linguistic factors affecting LT creation.

One salient feature is related to the context concordance in which an LT appears. For instance, the LT ʔal-faḍa:ʔ ʔar-raqami ‘the digital space’ is consistently found in the IT context (as shown in Figure 1), while the LT saţħ ʔal-maktab may appear in more than one context, including the IT domain (as shown in Figure 2). In the latter case, the LT is based on the English term ‘desktop’. Thus, the Arabic combination saţħ ʔal-maktab is assigned a new sense, that is ‘a computer screen displaying files, programs, etc.’. In other contexts, saţħ and ʔal-maktab usually refer to ‘a surface (saţħ) of a desk (maktab) located in a room’. Figure 2 illustrates the concordance of these two types of contexts of saţħ ʔal-maktab. The general contexts are highlighted in bold.

Figure 1

Concordance hits of ʔal-faḍa:ʔ ʔar-raqami ‘digital space’ produced by KACST.

Figure 2

Concordance hits of saţħ ʔal-maktab ‘desktop’ produced by KACST.

The other important feature pertains to the frequency distribution of LTs across the various domains. Table 2 shows the frequency of eight LTs, which were selected randomly from the data. The analysis revealed that out of ten source categories of the KACST corpus, the majority of LTs are frequently encountered in three main sources: newspapers/news agencies, magazines, and the internet. This is because these domains are heavily influenced by the use of foreign languages, particularly English. As a result, many of the technical terms and concepts used in these domains are originally expressed in English. Arabic writers and professionals who work in these fields often find it easier to use LTs, which are direct translations of these terms into Arabic, rather than creating new Arabic terms. Additionally, the fast pace of these industries and the need for quick communication also contribute to the widespread use of LTs, as they provide a convenient and efficient way to convey complex concepts and ideas.

6 Discussion

The study showed that some of the LTs identified in the KACST corpus may appear in contexts other than the IT domain, indicating a potential for these terms to be used in a broader range of domains. This finding suggests that LT is not only a strategy for Arabicizing IT terms but could potentially contribute to the enrichment of the Arabic language in general.

It is necessary to underline that what is borrowed in LT is the meaning, while the form is always native. Moreover, the semantics of LTs never changes. By contrast, their morphosyntactic structure may be adjusted to fit Arabic grammar. All English “modifier-head” constructions are reversed into “head-modifier” ones, including “complex calques” that consist of three or more components such as the last two examples in (4a) (cf. Zabawa, 2022).

The findings indicated that LTs are only associated with one type of lexical variation which is paradigmatic variation, but not syntagmatic variation. This result is not in line with Al-Wahy (2020) who found that both types do exist in Arabic PUs calqued from English in other fields of knowledge such as politics and literature.

Moreover, the analysis revealed that the Arabicization of IT terms through LT is not a uniform or straightforward process. Instead, it is highly influenced by linguistic and non-linguistic factors, which means that Arabicization is not just a linguistic issue but also a social and cultural one that involves the interaction between language, technology, and society.

One of the linguistic factors that may govern the creation of LTs in WSA is lexical need. The results of this study disagree with Al-Wahy (2022) who concluded that the majority of Arabic PUs in fields like politics are mostly borrowed for reasons of prestige rather than necessity. In this study, and unlike other domains of knowledge, LTs, in the IT domain, are adopted from English due to the lexical need for IT terms in WSA.

Semantic transparency is another linguistic factor that leads to LT formation (González & Knospe, 2019). Transparency is a concept that varies in degree and pertains to the capacity to infer the meaning of a phrasal unit based on the meanings of its constituent words or morphemes, which is determined by whether those components are used in a literal or metaphorical sense. Most calques from English are most probably classified according to their degree of transparency rather than decomposability because they are non-idiomatic PUs and consequently used literally not figuratively as is the case in expressions from non-technical fields (cf. Al-Wahy, 2022). As analyzed in the section on the metaphorical extension above, figurative calquing may occur in the IT domain, but the LTs created are still transparent. Metaphors based on similarity in function are a common feature of technical terminology in many languages, and they allow for the transfer of complex ideas and concepts between different languages. These metaphors contribute to the development of a unique technical vocabulary and style of expression in Arabic.

The Arabic language academies’ efforts are fruitful, but they can be sometimes problematic. They are fruitful in that they promote a sense of linguistic nationalism, which strengthens support for native terms, including LTs. Nationalism is one of the extralinguistic factors that enhances the use of LTs in WSA (cf. González & Knospe, 2019). Another non-linguistic factor refers to the lack of coordination among these academies, which results in various solutions being presented in dictionaries and specialized literature, leading to synonymous variation. This causes confusion in scientific and cultural communication among WSA users. Therefore, IT terms must be unified and documented in reliable and accessible references.

Examples in (8) indicate that lexical borrowing is an additional linguistic factor that may lead to paradigmatic variation. It is worth noting that although LTs with loanword variants are usually less formal than those with native variants, they are much more frequent than their native counterparts, as shown in Table 3 regarding the examples ʔal-kumbiyu:tar ʔaš-šaxşi ‘personal computer’ and kart ʔaš-ša:šah ‘graphics card’. This is because loanwords are often associated with colloquial language use, whereas native equivalents are considered more formal and more prestigious.

7 Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to investigate Arabicization through LT in the field of IT. Using a corpus-based approach, the study analyzed a sample of neologisms calqued from English into WSA, with a focus on identifying the most common LT strategies and their frequency of occurrence. In addition, Al-Wahy’s (2020) explanatory approach was adopted to examine the lexical variations that may exist in Arabic LTs.

The majority of LTs in WSA are frequently encountered in newspapers, magazines, and the internet, as shown by the KACST corpus analysis. The study identified four main strategies used in Arabicizing IT terms, including morphosyntactic pattern alteration, literal translation, loan blending, and metaphorical extension. The most common strategy used was morphosyntactic pattern alteration, which involved reversing the order of phrase constituents, changing the word class, and rendering acronyms into full forms. Literal translation occurred in three degrees of calquing: full LTs (element-by-element translation), partial LTs (some components are translated freely), and non-LTs (all the constituents of each calque are translated freely). Loan blending involved borrowing one part of the phrasal unit directly as a loanword, while substituting the other part with a native word. Finally, metaphorical extension involved using metaphors in the data based on similarity in function or shape. It was also found that paradigmatic variation is prevalent in LTs, with synonymous variations being more common than nonsynonymous ones, with no instances of syntagmatic variation in the data. The KACST analysis showed that these variants differ a lot in terms of frequency of occurrence. Moreover, the study identified the linguistic and extralinguistic factors that influence the creation and variation of LTs. Linguistic factors included the lexical gap in vocabulary, semantic transparency, and lexical borrowing. Extralinguistic factors included linguistic nationalism and the lack of coordination among Arabic language academies.

The study’s findings have some important implications. One of these implications is that the study’s results can be used to improve the quality of IT-related translations between English and WSA. By identifying the common lexical patterns for LTs in this domain, translators can ensure that their translations are more accurate and natural-sounding. They can also help improve machine translation systems. By incorporating the identified lexical variations into machine translation algorithms, the accuracy and naturalness of the translations produced by these systems can be improved. Furthermore, The IT data of LT can constitute a basis for an IT database in standard Arabic and consequently a basis for compiling a specialized bilingual dictionary.

Another notable aspect of this study is the role of metaphorical extension in the Arabicization of IT terms through LT. The study found that most of the metaphors identified in the data were based on similarity in function rather than shape. This finding suggests that metaphors play a vital role in facilitating the understanding and acceptance of IT terms in WSA and can contribute to the development of specialized IT terminology in Arabic.

The prevalence of paradigmatic variation over syntagmatic variation implies that Arabic speakers tend to use different but equivalent terms to express the same concept, which could contribute to the richness and flexibility of the Arabic language.

Paradigmatic variations reflect the diversity of the Arabic language and its interaction with other languages and cultures. It can affect the understanding, acceptance, and standardization of IT terms in Arabic-speaking communities. One implication is that lexical variations can lead to confusion and misunderstanding among Arabic-speaking communities, especially in the context of cross-border communication and collaboration. For instance, a particular IT term that is commonly used in one Arabic-speaking country may not be understood or recognized in another country, leading to communication breakdowns and delays. Another implication is that lexical variations can hinder the standardization of IT terminology in Arabic. The lack of standardization can lead to inconsistencies and inaccuracies in the translation of IT terms, which could affect the quality and reliability of IT-related content and applications in Arabic.

Therefore, the Arabic language academies should collaborate and coordinate with each other in order to standardize LTs calqued from English in the IT field. This can be achieved by (1) establishing a standardization committee of experts in linguistic and technical fields, (2) developing a standardization process, (3) creating a specialized IT dictionary, (4) providing training and resources to dictionary compilers, and translators, and (5) collaborating with the IT industry to cope with the latest technological advances and the corresponding IT terms in English.

The current study enhances some further research. The more specialized technical terms (together with the common ones) might be examined in future research, which may lead to the compilation of a database and/or bilingual dictionary in the field of IT terminology. Arabic language academies can play a significant role in this project, and it is crucial to coordinate efforts effectively to ensure its success. By actively involving Arabic language academies, their expertise and authority in language matters can be leveraged to provide guidance, financial support, and oversight. This collaboration between Arabic language academies and other relevant entities will facilitate the accurate translation and consistent use of technical terminology in Arabic, benefiting various fields and promoting effective communication in specialized domains.

Moreover, it is important to note that syntagmatic variation may still occur in specific contexts within the IT domain. Future efforts could investigate the occurrence and patterns of syntagmatic variation in different domains and contexts in WSA.