Band 2, Heft 4

‘External quantum efficiency’, that is, the number of photons generated per electron passing through the p-n junction of an LED is probably the most important number to quantify the performance of an LED chip. Although advances in epitaxy have increased the fraction of radiative recombination to extremely high values, the extraction of the precious photons that are trapped in a high refractive index crystal is still tricky. In this brief tutorial, we look at the physics of light extraction both from a geometrical optics/thermodynamic and a wave optics point of view, discussing both random and deterministic surface structures.

The ever-increasing use of LED as a solid-state light source in general and specialized lighting has pushed the field of optics further for illumination towards sophistication and high precision. In this paper, we provide an overview of this domain, starting with a formulation of the underlying, fundamental mathematical problem, which in itself is not easily and directly solvable. We then describe various algorithms that have been developed as approximations for specialized cases, providing references to the relevant publications. Finally, two examples show the new possibilities in light shaping that have been made possible through the use of nonimaging freeform optics.

Contemporary white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are much more efficient than compact fluorescent lamps and hence are rapidly capturing the market for general illumination. LEDs are also replacing halogen lamps or even newer xenon based lamps in automotive headlamps. Because laser diodes are inherently much brighter and often more efficient than corresponding LEDs, there is great research interest in developing laser diode based illumination systems. Operating at higher current densities and with smaller form factors, laser diodes may outperform LEDs in the future. This article reviews the possibilities and challenges in the integration of visible laser diodes in future illumination systems.

SMS 3D (simultaneous multiple surfaces in their three-dimensional version) is a well-known design method comprising two freeform surfaces that allow the perfect coupling of two wavefronts with another two. The design algorithm provides a collection of line pairs on both surfaces (called SMS spines), whose three-dimensional shape seems arbitrary at first sight. This paper shows that the shapes of the spines are partially governed by applying the étendue conservation theorem to the biparametric bundle of rays linking the paired spines, which is one lesser known étendue invariants found by Poincaré. The resulting formulae for the spines in three-dimensional space happen to coincide with the conventional étendue formulas of two-dimensional geometry, like for instance, the Hottel formula.

Light guiding backlights are a good solution to attain ambient or display illuminations. Generally, they are attained using intended macroscopic defects (dots). Their size, shape and density are designed using ray tracing software. Smaller defects have the fascinating feature that they may not be perceived by the eye. Such a light guide will therefore look transparent and undisturbed. However, such microscopic or even nanoscaled defects are well beyond the limitations of geometrical optics and therefore need other approaches for their design. An interesting alternative to surface defects are particles inside the material or a well-defined surface roughness. In contrast to a defect structure, particle densities or surface roughness cannot be changed without difficulty. These may, however, be much more easily manufactured. In this paper, a simple analytical method for the design of such light guides will be presented. This method is compared to the results of commercial software and will be used to design a homogeneous illumination adopting constant particle density inside the material.

To improve the resolution in point source digital in-line holography, we present two deconvolutions, one for the illumination system (coherent or partially coherent light source such as a laser or diode and pinhole) and one for the finite numerical aperture of the hologram. We show that for a system with moderate numerical aperture, optimal resolution of λ /2 laterally and λ in depth can be achieved.