From the Syrian to Ukrainian refugee crisis: Tracing the changes in the Italian Twitter discussions through network analysis
Abstract
This study examines the Italian Twitter landscape during the 2015 Syrian and 2022 Ukrainian refugee crises, with a focus on the evolution of anti-refugee discourse. Through the analysis of 400,000 tweets, we sought to identify attitudinal communities, track changes in user positions, and evaluate the trending potential of the communities. Our findings indicate a shift in opinion leaders within the anti-refugee community from 2015, alongside a persistent ability to influence public discourse. Additionally, while the pro-Ukrainian refugee community has grown, incorporating previously neutral users, it remains loosely connected. Finally, the shifts in attitudes of Italian populist leaders regarding Syrian and Ukrainian refugees are interpreted in light of the changes in user attitudes as observed in the communication networks. This research highlights the importance of computational communication methods for investigating fringe groups absent from mainstream discourse, and underscores the necessity of content moderation and proactive digital activism to counter anti-refugee sentiment online.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the OPPORTUNITIES project, funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research & Innovation program under Grant Agreement No. 101004945, and by the HumMingBird project, under the same program under Grant Agreement No. 870661. David De Coninck is supported by funding from the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) with grant number 1219824N (DeMiSo).
References
Adinolfi, S., & Caracciolo, M. (2023). Narrative, scale, and two refugee crises in comparison in the Italian media. DIEGESIS (WUPPERTAL), 12(2), 18–33. https://doi.org/10.25926/wrn0-8n40Suche in Google Scholar
Åkerlund, M. (2022). Far right, right here: Interconnections of discourse, platforms, and users in the digital mainstream [PhD dissertation]. Umeå University. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-191942Suche in Google Scholar
Alonso-Muñoz, L., & Casero-Ripollés, A. (2020). Populism against Europe in social media: The Eurosceptic discourse on Twitter in Spain, Italy, France, and United Kingdom during the campaign of the 2019 European Parliament election. Frontiers in Communication, 5, 54. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2020.0005410.3389/fcomm.2020.00054Suche in Google Scholar
Amati, G., Angelini, S., Capri, F., Gambosi, G., Rossi, G., & Vocca, P. (2016). Twitter temporal evolution analysis: Comparing event and topic driven retweet graphs. https://www.iadisportal.org/digital-library/twitter-temporal-evolution-analysis-comparing-event-and-topic-driven-retweet-graphsSuche in Google Scholar
Avraamidou, M., & Eftychiou, E. (2022). Migrant racialization on Twitter during a border and a pandemic crisis. International Communication Gazette, 84(3), 227–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048521105430110.1177/17480485211054301Suche in Google Scholar
Bahtic-Kunrath, B., & Gebauer, C. (2023). From narratives of crisis to narratives of solidarity. University of Wuppertal.Suche in Google Scholar
Bail, C. (2014). Terrified: How Anti-Muslim fringe organizations became mainstream. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/978140085262810.23943/princeton/9780691159423.001.0001Suche in Google Scholar
Bastian, M., Heymann, S., & Jacomy, M. (2009). Gephi: An open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence.10.1609/icwsm.v3i1.13937Suche in Google Scholar
Bennett, W. L., & Pfetsch, B. (2018). Rethinking political communication in a time of disrupted public spheres. Journal of Communication, 68(2), 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqx01710.1093/joc/jqx017Suche in Google Scholar
Berti, C., & Loner, E. (2023). Character assassination as a right-wing populist communication tactic on social media: The case of Matteo Salvini in Italy. New Media & Society, 25(11), 2939–2960. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444821103922210.1177/14614448211039222Suche in Google Scholar
Blondel, V. D., Guillaume, J.-L., Lambiotte, R., & Lefebvre, E. (2008). Fast unfolding of communities in large networks. Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment, 2008(10). http://arxiv.org/abs/0803.047610.1088/1742-5468/2008/10/P10008Suche in Google Scholar
Blumenthal, S. (1980). The permanent campaign: Inside the world of elite political operatives (1st ed.). Beacon Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Bodrunova, S. S., Litvinenko, A. A., & Blekanov, I. S. (2017). Comparing influencers: Activity vs. connectivity measures in defining key actors in Twitter ad hoc discussions on migrants in Germany and Russia. In G. L. Ciampaglia, A. Mashhadi, & T. Yasseri (Eds.), Social informatics (pp. 360–376). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67217-5_2210.1007/978-3-319-67217-5_22Suche in Google Scholar
Bonilla, Y., & Rosa, J. (2015). #Ferguson: Digital protest, hashtag ethnography, and the racial politics of social media in the United States. American Ethnologist, 42(1), 4–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.1211210.1111/amet.12112Suche in Google Scholar
Bordignon, F., Diamanti, I., & Turato, F. (2022). Rally ’round the Ukrainian flag. The Russian attack and the (temporary?) suspension of geopolitical polarization in Italy. Contemporary Italian Politics, 14(3), 370–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/23248823.2022.206017110.1080/23248823.2022.2060171Suche in Google Scholar
Bruns, A. (2019). After the ‘APIcalypse’: Social media platforms and their fight against critical scholarly research. Information, Communication & Society, 22(11), 1544–1566. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.163744710.1080/1369118X.2019.1637447Suche in Google Scholar
Bulli, G., & Soare, S. C. (2018). Immigration and the refugee crisis in a new immigration country: The case of Italy. Croatian and Comparative Public Administration, 18(1), 127–156.Suche in Google Scholar
Ceccorulli, M. (2023). From Ukraine to the Mediterranean: Italy and the governance of migration. Contemporary Italian Politics, 15(2), 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/23248823.2023.219768910.1080/23248823.2023.2197689Suche in Google Scholar
Choi, J.-A., Benton, B., Yi Luo, & Green, K. (2022, October 31). Study finds hate speech increases on Twitter after Elon Musk acquisition. Montclair State University School of Communications and Media. https://www.montclair.edu/school-of-communication-and-media/study-finds-hate-speech-increases-on-twitter-after-elon-musk-acquisition/Suche in Google Scholar
Conover, M. D., Gonçalves, B., Flammini, A., & Menczer, F. (2012). Partisan asymmetries in online political activity. EPJ Data Science, 1(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjds610.1140/epjds6Suche in Google Scholar
d’Haenens, L., Joris, W., & Heinderyckx, F. (2019). Images of immigrants and refugees in Western Europe: Media representations, public opinion and refugees’ experiences. Leuven University Press.10.11116/9789461662811Suche in Google Scholar
Davidson, T. (2024). Audience engagement and the dynamics of online activism: Far-right mobilization on Facebook. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 28(4), 445–470. https://doi.org/10.17813/1086-671X-22-4-44510.17813/1086-671X-22-4-445Suche in Google Scholar
De Coninck, D. (2023). The refugee paradox during wartime in Europe: How Ukrainian and Afghan refugees are (not) alike. International Migration Review, 57(2), 578–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0197918322111687410.1177/01979183221116874Suche in Google Scholar
Dehghan, E. (2020). Networked discursive alliances: Antagonism, agonism, and the dynamics of discursive struggles in the Australian Twittersphere [PhD dissertation]. Queensland University of Technology. https://doi.org/10.5204/thesis.eprints.17460410.5204/thesis.eprints.174604Suche in Google Scholar
Ekman, M. (2019). Anti-immigration and racist discourse in social media. European Journal of Communication, 34(6), 606–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/026732311988615110.1177/0267323119886151Suche in Google Scholar
Elmer, G., Langlois, G., & McKelvey, F. (2012). The permanent campaign: New media, new politics (New edition). Peter Lang Inc.Suche in Google Scholar
Esau, K., Choucair, T., Vilkins, S., Svegaard, S., Bruns, A., & Lubicz, C. (2023, May, 25–29). Destructive political polarization in the context of digital communication – A critical literature review and conceptual framework [Conference presentation]. 73rd Annual ICA Conference, Toronto, Canada. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/238775/Suche in Google Scholar
Esposito, A. (2022). The limitations of humanity: Differential refugee treatment in the EU. Harvard International Review. https://hir.harvard.edu/the-limitations-of-humanity-differential-refugee-treatment-in-the-eu/Suche in Google Scholar
European Parliament. (2023). The concept of “climate refugee” Towards a possible definition. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2021/698753/EPRS_BRI(2021)698753_EN.pdfSuche in Google Scholar
Falkenberg, M., Galeazzi, A., Torricelli, M., Di Marco, N., Larosa, F., Sas, M., Mekacher, A., Pearce, W., Zollo, F., Quattrociocchi, W., & Baronchelli, A. (2022). Growing polarisation around climate change on social media (arXiv:2112.12137). arXiv. http://arxiv.org/abs/2112.1213710.1038/s41558-022-01527-xSuche in Google Scholar
Freelon, D. (2020). Partition-specific network analysis of digital trace data: Research questions and tools. In B. Foucault Welles, & S. González-Bailón (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Networked Communication (pp. 89–110). Oxford University Press.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190460518.013.3Suche in Google Scholar
Freelon, D., McIlwain, C. D., & Clark, M. D. (2016). Beyond the hashtags: #Ferguson, #Blacklivesmatter, and the online struggle for offline justice. Center for Media & Social Impact. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=274706610.2139/ssrn.2747066Suche in Google Scholar
Gerbaudo, P. (2016a). Constructing public space| rousing the Facebook crowd: Digital enthusiasm and emotional contagion in the 2011 protests in Egypt and Spain. International Journal of Communication, 10, 254–273. http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/3963Suche in Google Scholar
Gerbaudo, P. (2016b). From data analytics to data hermeneutics. Online Political discussions, digital methods and the continuing relevance of interpretive approaches. Digital Culture & Society, 2(2), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.14361/dcs-2016-020710.14361/dcs-2016-0207Suche in Google Scholar
González-Bailón, S., D’Andrea, V., Freelon, D., & De Domenico, M. (2022). The advantage of the right in social media news sharing. PNAS Nexus, 1. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac13710.1093/pnasnexus/pgac137Suche in Google Scholar
Gruzd, A., & Mai, P. (2020). Going viral: How a single tweet spawned a COVID-19 conspiracy theory on Twitter. Big Data & Society, 7(2), 2053951720938405. https://doi.org/10.1177/205395172093840510.1177/2053951720938405Suche in Google Scholar
Hairol Anuar, S. H., Abas, Z. A., Yunos, N. M., Mohd Zaki, N. H., Hashim, N. A., Mokhtar, M. F., Asmai, S. A., Abidin, Z. Z., & Nizam, A. F. (2021). Comparison between Louvain and Leiden algorithm for network structure: A review. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2129(1), 012028. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2129/1/01202810.1088/1742-6596/2129/1/012028Suche in Google Scholar
Howard, R. G. (2022). Manufacturing populism: Digitally amplified vernacular authority. Media and Communication, 10(4), 236–247. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v10i4.585710.17645/mac.v10i4.5857Suche in Google Scholar
Jacomy, M., Venturini, T., Heymann, S., & Bastian, M. (2014). ForceAtlas2, a continuous graph layout algorithm for handy network visualization designed for the Gephi software. PLoS ONE, 9(6), e98679. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.009867910.1371/journal.pone.0098679Suche in Google Scholar
Jungherr, A., Schoen, H., Posegga, O., & Jürgens, P. (2017). Digital trace data in the study of public opinion: An indicator of attention toward politics rather than political support. Social Science Computer Review, 35(3), 336–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/089443931663104310.1177/0894439316631043Suche in Google Scholar
Kiyak, S., Coninck, D. D., Mertens, S., & d’Haenens, L. (2023). Exploring the German-Language Twittersphere: Network analysis of discussions on the Syrian and Ukrainian refugee crises. In B. Berendt, M. Krzywdzinski, & E. Kuznetsova (Eds.), Proceedings of the Weizenbaum Conference 2023: AI, Big Data, Social Media, and People on the Move (pp. 46–58). Weizenbaum Institute for the Networked Society – The German Internet Institute. https://doi.org/10.34669/wi.cp/5.5Suche in Google Scholar
Krzyżanowski, M. (2020). Discursive shifts and the normalization of racism: Imaginaries of immigration, moral panics and the discourse of contemporary right-wing populism. Social Semiotics, 30(4), 503–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2020.176619910.1080/10350330.2020.1766199Suche in Google Scholar
Laitin, D. D. (2022, 24 March). Ukrainian refugees face a more accommodating Europe, says Stanford scholar. Stanford News. https://news.stanford.edu/2022/03/24/ukrainian-refugees-face-accommodating-europe-says-stanford-scholar/Suche in Google Scholar
Lami, G., & Sahota, S. K. (2022). The Russian invasion of Ukraine: Some readings from Italian newspapers (20 February–5 March 2022). Modern Italy, 27(3), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1017/mit.2022.2110.1017/mit.2022.21Suche in Google Scholar
Lee, J.-S., & Nerghes, A. (2018). Refugee or migrant crisis? Labels, perceived agency, and sentiment polarity in online discussions. Social Media + Society, 4(3), 2056305118785638. https://doi.org/10.1177/205630511878563810.1177/2056305118785638Suche in Google Scholar
Loner, E. (2023). Enemies and friends. The instrumental social construction of populist identity through twitter in Italy at the time of COVID-19. European Journal of Cultural and Political Sociology, 10(2), 279–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/23254823.2022.212542110.1080/23254823.2022.2125421Suche in Google Scholar
Lucchesi, D., & Romania, V. (2024). ‘Italians locked at home, illegal migrants free to disembark’: How populist parties re-contextualized the anti-immigration discourse at the time of COVID-19 pandemic. Discourse & Society, 35(1), 83–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926523119050410.1177/09579265231190504Suche in Google Scholar
Majmundar, A., Allem, J.-P., Cruz, T. B., & Unger, J. B. (2018). The Why We Retweet scale. PLOS ONE, 13(10), e0206076. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020607610.1371/journal.pone.0206076Suche in Google Scholar
Mattei, M., Pratelli, M., Caldarelli, G., Petrocchi, M., & Saracco, F. (2022). Bow-tie structures of Twitter discursive communities. Scientific Reports, 12(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-16603-710.1038/s41598-022-16603-7Suche in Google Scholar
MacNamee, D. (2023, 17 December). Exclusive: The X Files – How Elon Musk’s new rules allow hate to flourish. Business Post. https://www.businesspost.ie/news/exclusive-the-x-files-how-elon-musks-new-rules-allow-hate-to-flourish/Suche in Google Scholar
Meraz, S., & Papacharissi, Z. (2013). Networked gatekeeping and networked framing on #Egypt. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18(2), 138–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/194016121247447210.1177/1940161212474472Suche in Google Scholar
Münch, F. V. (2019). Measuring the networked public: Exploring network science methods for large scale online media studies [Doctoral dissertation]. Queensland University of Technology.Suche in Google Scholar
Nerghes, A., & Lee, J.-S. (2019). Narratives of the refugee crisis: A comparative study of mainstream-media and twitter. Media and Communication, 7(2), 275–288. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v7i2.198310.17645/mac.v7i2.1983Suche in Google Scholar
Nicasio-Varea, B., Pérez-Gabaldón, M., & Chavez, M. (2020). Using social media to motivate anti-migration sentiments. Political implications in the United States and beyond. Tripodos, 49, 51–69. https://doi.org/10.51698/tripodos.2020.49p51-6910.51698/tripodos.2020.49p51-69Suche in Google Scholar
Papacharissi, Z. (2015). Affective publics: Sentiment, technology, and politics. Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199999736.001.0001Suche in Google Scholar
Petropoulos, T. S. (2021). Breaking point: How migrant crises have influenced the rise of far-right parties in Italy, Germany, and the UK. Fordham University Fordham University.Suche in Google Scholar
Punziano, G., De Falco, C. C., & Trezza, D. (2023). Digital mixed content analysis for the study of digital platform social data: An illustration from the analysis of COVID-19 risk perception in the Italian Twittersphere. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 17(2), 143–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689821106764710.1177/15586898211067647Suche in Google Scholar
Recuero, R., Zago, G., & Soares, F. (2019). Using social network analysis and social capital to identify user roles on polarized political conversations on Twitter. Social Media + Society, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/205630511984874510.1177/2056305119848745Suche in Google Scholar
Risam, R. (2015). Beyond the margins: Intersectionality and the digital humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 9(2). https://digitalrepository.salemstate.edu/handle/20.500.13013/418Suche in Google Scholar
Roberts, H. (2022, 11 March). Italy’s Matteo Salvini recasts himself as champion of Ukraine’s refugees. POLITICO. https://www.politico.eu/article/italys-matteo-salvini-recasts-himself-as-champion-of-ukraines-refugees/Suche in Google Scholar
Russo, V., & del Gobbo, E. (2023). Inside trending topic algorithm: How do human interactions drive public opinion in an artificial environment. Social Science Computer Review, 41(1), 234–248. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439321104150110.1177/08944393211041501Suche in Google Scholar
Sales, M. I. (2023). The refugee crisis’ double standards: Media framing and the proliferation of positive and negative narratives during the Ukrainian and Syrian crises. EuroMeSCo. https://www.euromesco.net/publication/the-refugee-crisis-double-standards-media-framing-and-the-proliferation-of-positive-and-negative-narratives-during-the-ukrainian-and-syrian-crisis/Suche in Google Scholar
Serrano, J. C. M., Shahrezaye, M., Papakyriakopoulos, O., & Hegelich, S. (2019). The rise of Germany’s AfD: A social media analysis. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Social Media and Society, 214–223. https://doi.org/10.1145/3328529.332856210.1145/3328529.3328562Suche in Google Scholar
Smith, M. a, Rainie, L., Shneiderman, B., & Himelboim, I. (2014, 20 February). Mapping Twitter topic networks: From polarized crowds to community clusters. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2014/02/20/mapping-twitter-topic-networks-from-polarized-crowds-to-community-clusters/Suche in Google Scholar
Sommer, R. (2022). Narrative dynamics and migration: Centrifugal vs. centripetal forces. University of Wuppertal.Suche in Google Scholar
Suomela, T., Chee, F., Berendt, B., & Rockwell, G. (2019). Applying an Ethics of Care to Internet Research: Gamergate and Digital Humanities. Digital Studies/Le Champ Numérique, 9(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.16995/dscn.30210.16995/dscn.302Suche in Google Scholar
Traag, V. A., Waltman, L., & van Eck, N. J. (2019). From Louvain to Leiden: Guaranteeing well-connected communities. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 5233. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41695-z10.1038/s41598-019-41695-zSuche in Google Scholar
Tumasjan, A., Sprenger, T. O., Sandner, P. G., & Welpe, I. M. (2011). Election forecasts with Twitter: How 140 characters reflect the political landscape. Social Science Computer Review, 29(4), 402–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/089443931038655710.1177/0894439310386557Suche in Google Scholar
Tuters, M., & Willaert, T. (2022). Deep state phobia: Narrative convergence in coronavirus conspiracism on Instagram. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 28(4), 1214–1238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856522111875110.1177/13548565221118751Suche in Google Scholar
Twitter. (2023). Twitter’s recommendation algorithm. Twitter Engineering Blog. https://blog.twitter.com/engineering/en_us/topics/open-source/2023/twitter-recommendation-algorithmSuche in Google Scholar
Velasquez, A., & LaRose, R. (2015). Youth collective activism through social media: The role of collective efficacy. New Media & Society, 17(6), 899–918. https://doi.org/10.1177/146144481351839110.1177/1461444813518391Suche in Google Scholar
Vilella, S., Lai, M., Paolotti, D., & Ruffo, G. (2020). Immigration as a divisive topic: Clusters and content diffusion in the Italian Twitter debate. Future Internet, 12(10), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi1210017310.3390/fi12100173Suche in Google Scholar
Williams, H. T. P., McMurray, J. R., Kurz, T., & Hugo Lambert, F. (2015). Network analysis reveals open forums and echo chambers in social media discussions of climate change. Global Environmental Change, 32, 126–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.03.00610.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.03.006Suche in Google Scholar
Yan, P., & Schroeder, R. (2024). Drifting away from the mainstream: Media attention and the politics of hyperpartisan news websites. Weizenbaum Journal of the Digital Society, 4(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.34669/WI.WJDS/4.2.2Suche in Google Scholar
Zajak, S., Stjepandić, K., & Steinhilper, E. (2021). Pro-migrant protest in times of COVID-19: Intersectional boundary spanning and hybrid protest practices. European Societies, 23(sup1), S172–S183. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.182107610.1080/14616696.2020.1821076Suche in Google Scholar
Zehring, M., & Domahidi, E. (2023). German Corona protest mobilizers on Telegram and their relations to the far right: A network and topic analysis. Social Media + Society, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305123115510610.1177/20563051231155106Suche in Google Scholar
© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston