Volume 29, Issue 1-2 - Special Issue: Environmental Exposure in Indigenous Communities / 15th International Conference of the Pacific Basin Consortium for Environment and Health / Guest Editors: Peter D. Sly, Marguerite T. Dalmau

There are more than 7000 spoken languages in the world today and many others that have already disappeared. The number of languages in relation to the number of countries (192 members of the United Nations) gives some indication of the number of indigenous communities there are in the world. Many of these communities are at various stages of integration into more dominant cultures, but many others struggle to maintain a traditional lifestyle. Many are subsistence communities that depend upon local sources of food and whose way of life is threatened by encroachment of more dominant cultures. There are, of course, different environmental threats in the various communities, but they fall into several categories that are common to many of them. There is often lack of access to medical care and disease-protective actions like immunizations. There is greater vulnerability than in more conventional societies to inclement weather, and this will become more serious with climate change. There is often contamination of local traditional animal and plant foods by chemicals because of long-range transport of contaminants by air or water or because of industries located in geographic areas close to indigenous communities where there is little governmental regulation. Life expectancy in many indigenous communities is much less than in more developed mainstream societies. However, these problems, which are widely viewed as being caused by poverty and lack of education, are balanced by the value to these communities of maintaining a traditional lifestyle that would otherwise simply disappear into the mainstream cultures of the various countries.

The incorporation of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) within the framework structure of copolymer sorbent materials, represents a novel modular design approach with significant potential for controlled tuning of the textural mesoporosity of such sorbent frameworks. β-CD copolymers represent an innovative design strategy for the development of “ smart ” or “ functional ” porous materials with improved solid phase extraction (SPE) and molecular recognition properties because of the porogen characteristics and their unique host-guest properties. Carbohydrate-based copolymers containing cyclodextrins (CDs) are of interest, in part, because of their ability to form stable inclusion complexes in aqueous solution. The inclusion properties of β-CD copolymers are determined by the surface area, pore structure, and site accessibility of inclusion sites within the copolymer framework. A mini-review of recent research in our group concerning the use of copolymers containing β-CD as sorbent materials for naphthenic acids is presented herein.

Arsenic continues to poison the water of millions of individuals around the globe. Despite the potentially devastating effects of arsenic on worldwide human health, the impacts of such exposure on vulnerable populations including pregnant women and their unborn children are understudied. Data from human populations exposed early in life highlight the increased mortality risks related to both cancer and non-cancer endpoints. The molecular underpinnings for these effects are largely unknown. Here we highlight the current studies linking prenatal arsenic exposure and health effects, particularly those that examined associations between arsenic exposure and altered genomic and epigenetic signaling. Current needs in the field to increase our understanding of the molecular basis for adult disease are mentioned.

There are two endemic areas of long-term exposure to arsenic from drinking water in Taiwan. Residents in the southwestern and northeastern endemic areas started using high-arsenic artesian well water in the early 1910s and late 1940s, respectively. Public water supply system using surface water was implemented in southwestern and northeastern endemic areas in the 1970s and 1990s, respectively. Systemic health hazards of long-term exposure to arsenic in drinking water have been intensively investigated since the 1960s, especially after 1985 in Taiwan. Several diseases have been well documented to be associated with chronic arsenic poisoning from drinking water showing a dose-response relation. They include characteristic skin lesions like hyperpigmentation or depigmentation, hyperkeratosis in palms and soles, and Bowen disease, peripheral vascular disease (specifically blackfoot disease), ischemic heart disease, cerebral infarction, microvascular diseases, abnormal peripheral microcirculation, carotid atherosclerosis, QT prolongation and increased dispersion in electrocardiography, hypertension, goiter, diabetes mellitus, cataract (specifically posterior subcapsular lens opacity), pterygium, slow neural conduction, retarded neurobehavioral development, erectile dysfunction, and cancers of the skin, lung, urinary bladder, kidney, and liver. The method of choice to mitigate arsenic poisoning through drinking water is to use safe drinking water from uncontaminated sources.

Mine tailings contain multiple toxic metal(loid)s that pose a threat to human health via inhalation and ingestion. The goals of this research include understanding the speciation and molecular environment of these toxic metal(loid)s (arsenic and lead) as well as the impacts particle size and residence time have on their bioaccessibilty in simulated gastric and lung fluid. Additionally, future work will include smaller size fractions (PM 10 and PM 2.5 ) of surface mine tailings, with the goal of increasing our understanding of multi-metal release from contaminated geo-dusts in simulated bio-fluids. This research is important to environmental human health risk assessment as it increases the accuracy of exposure estimations to toxic metal(loid)s.

Mercury (Hg), also known as quick silver, is an essential constituent of dental amalgam. It is a toxic substance of global concern. Children are more at risk from mercury poisoning which affects their neurological development and brain. In the past, a number of studies at dental sites in many countries have been carried out and reported. The present report briefly describes and discusses our recent investigations carried out at 34 dental sites (teaching institutions, hospitals and private clinics) in Pakistan. It is evident from the data that at many sites the indoor mercury vapor levels exceed far above the permissible limit recommended for safe physical and mental health. At these sites, public in general and the medical, paramedical staff and vulnerable population in particular, are at most serious risk to health resulting from exposure to toxic and hazardous mercury. To minimize such risk, some of the recommendations are, best in-house environmental practices for occupational health and safety, mercury contaminated waste reduction at source, mercury specific legislation and ratification of Minamata convention on mercury by Pakistan and other world governments at the earliest time possible

An overview of the bioremediation session in 15th International Conference of the Pacific Basin Consortium for Environment and Health is presented. Brief summaries of the presentations made in the session covering topics dealing with remediation aspects using latest concepts of metagenomics, magnetic nano-composites and air pollution modeling with reference to PCBs have been described.

In addition to the electronic waste generated in India, toxic wastes containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are dumped in India for recycling purpose. In addition tropical climate facilitates the rapid entry of PCBs to the atmosphere from the contaminated surfaces. Therefore it is important to identify the pathway for atmospheric PCB loading so as to regulate the ongoing release of PCBs. Hence active and passive air sampling of PCBs were conducted along the urban and suburban transects of seven major Indian cities and from the hotspots and rural/background locations in India during 2006–2012. A sinusoidal model could very well describe the diurnal pattern observed in New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai, which suggests that concentrations in air are influenced by temperature-dependent air-soil surface exchange processes.

There are many chemicals used in and around homes and workplaces that can result in accidents. Can it be said that the insecticides, drugs, polychlorinated biphenyls, DDT, asbestos, cleansers, cosmetics, and other chemicals are worth the price paid in terms of accidental poisonings? That is for the consumer to decide. Generally, it is the misuse of these chemicals that often leads to tragedy. Chemicals can be dangerous, but they can be advantageous when used with care.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyles (PCBs) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are discharged in surface water by various point and nonpoint sources thereby degrading the functioning of the ecosystem and threatening human health. Chlorinated pesticides such as Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs) and Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs) are effective pest control chemicals, used in agriculture and public health activities (malaria eradication, etc.) in India for the past several decades and are still in use. POPs can cause endocrine disruption and food chain biomagnification because of their lipophilicity and environmental persistence. This study aims to assess the environmental occurrence and spatial distribution of OCPs, PAHs and PCBs in the surface water of River Brahmaputra and Ganga ending at the of the Bay of Bengal.The order of organochlorine pesticides is as: heptachlor>HCHs>DDTs>dieldrin>aldrin>endosulfan. Diamond Harbour and Bakkhali were the two places with elevated level of all individual HCH isomers compared to all other sites. β-Endosulfan and α-Endosulfan were high at Dibrugarh than other sampling sites. This is due to the ongoing use of Endosulfan in the tea estates in Assam especially the estates close to the town of Dibrugarh. p,p′-DDT and o,p′-DDT levels indicate the fresh input of DDT in all the sampling sites. Heptachlor has been observed in 57% of the total samples reported in the present study.These reasons may attribute to high deposition of pesticides in the surface water of Ganga and Brahmaputra.In addition the catchments area of the Ganga River is surrounded by agricultural lands so a relatively higher residue of pesticides was prevalent. Σ 27 PCBs varied from BDL to 142 (Avg±SD, 3.96±6.71) ng L -1 . PCB-18, PCB-52 & PCB-44 showed the highest concentration levels for all the sampling sites. PCB-126 was observed in samples taken from sites close to the city limit of Kolkata and Assam which is an indication of higher toxic effect from this highly toxic congener. PCB-169 was prevalent in most of the sites. The total concentrations of PAHs varied from BDL to 31 (Avg±SD, 0.2±1.5) µg L -1 . PAHs concentrationswere very low as PAHs are particle bound compounds.

Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), a persistent organochlorine insecticide, has been extensively used in the past for control of agricultural pests and vector borne diseases. The use of HCH has indeed accrued benefits, however the unusual production of the insecticidal isomer; γ-HCH (lindane) and unregulated disposal of HCH muck has created various dumpsites all over the world, leading to serious environmental concerns. HCH isomers have been ranked as possible human carcinogens and endocrine disruptors with proven teratogenic, mutagenic and genotoxic effects, hence making its decontamination mandatory. Efforts in this direction have led to the isolation of various HCH degrading bacteria from the dumpsites, reflecting their role in HCH bioremediation. This review summarizes the problem of environmental persistence of HCH isomers along with their toxicity and possible solutions for their decontamination.

The present electronic era has seen massive proliferation of electrical and electronic equipment especially during the last two decades. These gadgets have become indispensable components of human life. The gravity of this sensitive 21st century problem is being felt by relevant stakeholders from the community to global level. Consequently, the annual global generation of e-waste is estimated to be 20–50 million tons. According to the Basel Action Network, 500 million computers contain 287 billion kilograms (kg) plastics; 716.7 million kg lead; and 286,700 kg mercury. These gadgets contain over 50 elements from the periodic table. The lethal components include heavy metals (like cadmium, mercury, copper, nickel, lead, barium, hexavalent chromium and beryllium); phosphor; plastics; and brominated flame retardants. These are persistent, mobile, and bioaccumulative toxins that remain in the environment but their forms are changed and are carcinogens, mutagens and teratogens. The ensuing hazardous waste has created deleterious impacts on physical, biological and socioeconomic environments. The lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere of Earth are being gravely polluted. Human beings and other biodiversity face fatal diseases, such as cancer, reproductive disorders, neural damages, endocrine disruptions, asthmatic bronchitis, and brain retardation. Marginal populations of developing countries living in squatter/slums are most vulnerable. Numerous issues are associated with uncontrolled generation, unscientific and environmentally inappropriate recycling processes for the extraction of heavy and precious metals (e.g., gold, platinum, and silver), illegal transboundary shipments from advanced to developing countries and weak conventions/legislations at global and national levels. Although the Basel Convention has been ratified by most countries, illicit trading/trafficking of hazardous substances remains unchecked, sometimes “disguised” as donations. The fact of matter is that vested business interests have surpassed ethical values. Existing scenarios of unbridled e-waste generation has attained alarming levels for humanity. This warrants immediate attention by public and private sectors, civil society, NGOs, industrialists and the business community for the protection of nature and natural resources from future destruction. Multipronged strategies need to be adopted for the management of e-waste encompassing administrative, technical, environmental, regulatory, legislative, educative, stakeholders’ participation and global cooperation.

Progress in providing clean water and sanitation throughout the developing world has been steady and encouraging, even though UN Millennium Development Goals will not be completely met. A number of important lessons have been learned along the way with respect to point-of-use water treatment and sanitation devices that are appropriate for deployment in remote areas where power and clean water are not available. Here, prominent point-of-use treatment systems are compared in terms of disinfection capability, durability and cost, and lessons learned regarding the provision of improved sanitation are reviewed.

An estimated 800,000 people do not have access to improved water sources, and 2.5 billion are without access to improved sanitation. As a result, an estimated 1800 children under 5 years of age die every day from preventable diseases related to water, sanitation & hygiene; more are ill or stunted. To sustainably improve people’s health, actors in the water sector at all levels should use flexible, integrated approaches focused on behavior change and service delivery. Approaches and technologies should be as simple as possible while still protecting human health and the environment. Remember, it’s not just about the toilet .

Provision of clean water is among the most serious, long-term challenges in the world. To an ever increasing degree, sustainable water supply depends on the utilization of water of impaired initial quality. This is particularly true in developing nations and in water-stressed areas such as the American Southwest. One clear example is the Navajo Nation. The reservation covers 27,000 square miles, mainly in northeastern Arizona. Low population density coupled with water scarcity and impairment makes provision of clean water particularly challenging. The Navajos rely primarily on ground water, which is often present in deep aquifers or of brackish quality. Commonly, reverse osmosis (RO) is chosen to desalinate brackish ground water, since RO costs are competitive with those of thermal desalination, even for seawater applications. However, both conventional thermal distillation and RO are energy intensive, complex processes that discourage decentralized or rural implementation. In addition, both technologies demand technical experience for operation and maintenance, and are susceptible to scaling and fouling unless extensive feed pretreatment is employed. Membrane distillation (MD), driven by vapor pressure gradients, can potentially overcome many of these drawbacks. MD can operate using low-grade, sub-boiling sources of heat and does not require extensive operational experience. This presentation discusses a project on the Navajo Nation, Arizona (Native American tribal lands) that is designed to investigate and deploy an autonomous (off-grid) system to pump and treat brackish groundwater using solar energy. Βench-scale, hollow fiber MD experiment results showed permeate water fluxes from 21 L/m 2 ·d can be achieved with transmembrane temperature differences between 40 and 80˚C. Tests run with various feed salt concentrations indicate that the permeate flux decreases only about 25% as the concentration increases from 0 to 14% (w/w), which is four times seawater salt concentration. The quality of the permeate water remains constant at about 1 mg/L regardless of the changes in the influent salt concentration. A nine-month MD field trial, using hollow fiber membranes and completely off-the-shelf components demonstrated that a scaled-up solar-driven MD system was practical and economically viable. Based on these results, a pilot scale unit will be constructed and deployed on the tribal lands.

Climate change is a global phenomenon manifested mainly through global warming. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has reported its negative consequences on natural resources, anthropogenic activities, and natural disasters. The El Nino and La Nina have affected hydrologic regimes and ecosystems. It has been observed that the average temperature in 1995 was 0.4°C higher than that in 1895. By the end of the 21st century, 10% of the area of Bangladesh is likely to be submerged by the sea. Most of the islands of Pacific Ocean will disappear. A major part of Maldives will be submerged. The sea level is expected to rise by 30–150 cm. Extreme events such as floods, cyclones, tsunamis, and droughts have become regular phenomena in many parts of the world. Other adverse impacts are proliferation of water-borne diseases, sea water intrusion, salinization of coastal areas, loss of biodiversity, eco-degradation of watersheds and global glacial decline, and haphazard snow melts/thaws. In turn, these factors have serious effect on water resources. Pakistan is confronting similar climate change. Meteorological data reveal that winter temperatures are rising and summers are getting cooler. Temperature is expected to increase by 0.9°C and 1.5°C by years 2020 and 2050, respectively. Water resources in Pakistan are affected by climate change as it impacts the behavior of glaciers, rainfall patterns, greenhouse gas emissions, recurrence of extreme events such as floods and droughts. Severe floods have occurred in the years 1950, 1956, 1957, 1973, 1976, 1978, 1988, 1992, 2010, 2011, and 2012. Pakistan has faced the worst-ever droughts during the period from 1998 to 2004. Pakistan has surface water potential of 140 million acre feet (MAF) and underground water reserve of 56 MAF. It is one of the most water-stressed countries in the world. The per capita annual availability of water has reduced from 5140 m 3 in 1950 to 1000 m 3 now. It is fast approaching towards water scarcity. To minimize adverse impacts of climate change on the water crisis in Pakistan, the preparation of integrated national, provincial, and local level master plans encompassing technical, social, environmental, administrative, and financial considerations is necessary. It is imperative to implement two simultaneous approaches of adaptation (living with climate change) and mitigation (addressing negativities of climate change). Salient features are integrated management of watersheds/catchments/water bodies, optimum exploitation of present sources, development of new sources, water conservation, adequate drainage, efficient design of water storage, conveyance, distribution and supply systems, utilization of waste water, and regulation of water quality.

Water is vital for human, animal, and plant life. Water is one of the most essential inputs for the production of crops. Plants need it in enormous quantities continuously during their life. The role of water is felt everywhere; its scarcity causes droughts and famines, its excess causes floods and deluge. During the next two decades, water will increasingly be considered a critical resource for the future survival of the arid and semiarid countries. The requirement of water is increasing day by day due to intensive agriculture practices, urbanization, population growth, industrialization, domestic use, and other uses. On the other hand, the availability of water resources is declining and the existing water is not enough to meet the needs. To overcome this problem, one available solution is utilization of waste water by using recycling, reuse, and remediation process.

Increasing global demand for metals is putting strain on the ability of the mining industry to physically keep up with demand (physical scarcity). Conversely, social issues including the environmental and human health consequences of mining as well as the disparity in income distribution from mining revenues are disproportionately felt at the local community level. This has created social rifts, particularly in the developing world, between affected communities and both industry and governments. Such rifts can result in a disruption of the steady supply of metals (situational scarcity). Here we discuss the importance of mining in relationship to poverty, identify steps that have been taken to create a framework for socially responsible mining, and then discuss the need for academia to work in partnership with communities, government, and industry to develop transdisciplinary research-based step change solutions to the intertwined problems of physical and situational scarcity.

Mining operations are potential sources of airborne particulate metal and metalloid contaminants through both direct smelter emissions and wind erosion of mine tailings. The warmer, drier conditions predicted for the Southwestern US by climate models may make contaminated atmospheric dust and aerosols increasingly important, due to potential deleterious effects on human health and ecology. Dust emissions and dispersion of contaminants from the Iron King Mine tailings in Dewey-Humboldt, Arizona, a Superfund site, are currently being investigated through in situ field measurements and computational fluid dynamics modeling. These tailings are significantly contaminated with lead and arsenic with an average soil concentration of 1616 and 1420 ppm, respectively. Similar levels of these contaminants have also been measured in soil samples taken from the area surrounding the mine tailings. Using a computational fluid dynamics model, we have been able to model dust transport from the mine tailings to the surrounding region. The model includes a distributed Eulerian model to simulate fine aerosol transport and a Lagrangian approach to model fate and transport of larger particles. In order to improve the accuracy of the dust transport simulations both regional topographical features and local weather patterns have been incorporated into the model simulations.

In this study, coal mine drainage sludge (CMDS) impregnated polyurethane granular composite media (PU CMDS ) was prepared and used to remove arsenic and other heavy metals in a metallic mine effluent. PU CMDS was used in rapid small-scale column tests to assess the effectiveness and suitability in the application of metallic mine water treatment. As a result in column tests, good performance of PU CMDS was observed with respect to bed volumes (more than 14,000 BVs) achieved to treat arsenic and other toxic heavy metals below their regulations. Three cycles of media regeneration and four cycles of column tests were conducted to evaluate the performance of PU CMDS .

The Pacific Basin Consortium session on Nanotechnology and toxicology brought together experts from biology and the physical sciences and engineering to discuss the environmental and health impacts of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in particular. The discussion included new findings in the area of inhalation toxicology as well as aquatic toxicology. Opportunities for engineering new forms of particles for toxicology studies were also presented.

Nanomaterials are characterized by their small size (i.e., nanometer scale) and can be engineered from nearly any chemical substance, creating materials that differ in composition, particle size, shape, and surface coatings. These materials are often seen as a “double-edged sword” by having properties that make them potentially beneficial in product development, drug delivery, and remediation of hazardous substances, but these same properties may result in interaction with biological systems and potential effects in the environment. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) is interested in both the potential risks associated with exposure to these materials, while harnessing the power of engineered nanomaterials to improve public health. This presentation will consist of discussion of nanoparticle studies by NIEHS researchers and the extramural community and its efforts to develop cross-agency initiatives to solve the many vexing issues associated with nanomaterials. For example, researchers from the NIEHS National Toxicology Program (NTP) are evaluating a number of nanomaterial classes in comprehensive toxicology studies. NIEHS also has an extensive extramural research grant portfolio consisting of the Nano Grand Opportunities (Nano GO) Program and NIEHS Centers for Nanotechnology Health Implications Research (NCNHIR) Consortium consisting of U19 and U01 Cooperative Centers. Furthermore, the NIEHS Superfund Research Program (SRP), which supports a network of university (P42, R01), small business (SBIR/STTR), and training grants (R25), provides funding to grantees evaluating the toxicology of nanomaterials, developing new or improved nanotechnologies to monitor and remediate hazardous substances, and training professionals in the use of these of materials. The NIEHS’s Worker Education Branch also offers educational materials for training workers on risks of nanotechnology in laboratories, manufacturing facilities, at hazardous waste cleanup sites, and during emergency responses. In conclusion, this presentation will stimulate dialogue regarding the need for more research on these complex materials and serve as a resource about the wide variety of ongoing studies on nanomaterials at NIEHS that will contribute to the determination of risk associated with this class of compounds.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are major pollutants and are considered to be one of the most important contaminants generated by human beings living in urban and industrial areas. Methyl tert -butyl ether (MTBE) is a VOC that has been widely used as a gasoline additive to reduce VOC emissions from motor vehicles. However, new gasoline additives like MTBE are having negative environmental impacts. Recent survey reports clearly show that groundwater is often polluted owing to leakage of petroleum products from underground storage tanks. MTBE is highly soluble in water (e.g., 0.35–0.71 M) and has been detected at high concentrations in groundwater. The presence of MTBE in groundwater poses a potential health problem. The documented effects of MTBE exposure are headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, cough, muscle aches, sleepiness, disorientation, dizziness, and skin and eye irritation. To address these problems, photocatalytic treatment is the preferred treatment for polluted water. In the present work, a simple and template-free solution phase synthesis method has been developed for the preparation of novel cadmium sulfide (CdS) hollow microspheres using cadmium nitrate and thioacetamide precursors. The synthesized products have been characterized by a variety of methods, including X-ray powder diffraction, high-resolution scanning electron microscopy (HR-SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and UV-visible diffused reflectance spectroscopy. The HR-SEM measurements revealed the spherical morphology of the CdS microspheres, which evolved by the oriented aggregation of the primary CdS nanocrystals. Furthermore, studies of photocatalytic activity revealed that the synthesized CdS hollow microspheres exhibit an excellent photocatalytic performance in rapidly degrading MTBE in aqueous solution under visible light illumination. These results suggest that CdS microspheres will be an interesting candidate for photocatalytic detoxification studies under visible light radiation.

Infectious diseases are responsible for significant disease burden in the Pacific Islands. Environmental drivers of disease transmission and public health challenges vary between diseases, at times of emergence versus outbreaks, and also during the last stages of elimination where prevalence is low. In order to more effectively combat infectious diseases in the region, innovative approaches such as sentinel surveillance, environmental monitoring, the use of geospatial tools should be explored.

Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency and duration of extreme-heat events and associated health outcomes. This study used data from the historical heat-health outcome relationship, and a unique prediction model, to estimate mortality for 2025 and 2045. For each one degree change in humidex above threshold, we find a corresponding 1.83% increase in mortality for all ages, all non-traumatic causes of death in King County, Washington. Mortality is projected to increase significantly in 2025 and 2045 for the 85 and older age group (2.3–8.0 and 4.0–22.3 times higher than baseline, respectively).

A community-engaged approach to environmental health research incorporates input and knowledge from members of a community and other stakeholders who are affected by an environmental health issue. Bringing the community voice to public health research and practice can increase the potential for translating research findings into sustainable changes and policies that can reduce exposure to environmental chemicals and other agents in order to protect children’s health around the world.

Worldwide, there were over 3 million deaths attributable to exposure to excessive levels of particulate air pollution in 2010. This is similar to the number of deaths attributable to high blood sugar (3.4 million) but less than the number of deaths attributed to smoking (5.7 million) and excessive alcohol consumption (5.0 million). Globally, ambient particulate air pollution was the ninth leading cause of premature deaths, and most of the disease attributable to exposure to ambient particulate air pollution is cardiovascular disease. Short-term and long-term exposures to outdoor particulate matter pollution are associated with a range of adverse cardiovascular health effects such as heart rate variability, development of atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia, myocardial infarction, stroke, and deaths. Despite this, there is not the same recognition of particulate air pollution as an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality compared to the more established risk factors such as cigarette smoking and hypertension. It is now time to reevaluate the contribution of particulate air pollution to cardiovascular disease.

Background: Parental exposures to chemicals, and the interplay between chemical exposures in utero and in infancy leading to respiratory disease in childhood, are not yet fully understood. In this study we investigated the impact of chemical exposures to the parent in occupational settings and to the child in the home and children’s respiratory health. Methods: A cross-sectional study of lung function and respiratory health was conducted in primary school children in the Kwinana industrial area, south of Perth, Western Australia. Respiratory health was assessed using a standardized questionnaire and lung function was measured using the forced oscillation technique before and after inhaling 200 μg of salbutamol. Univariate logistic regression models were used to explore the relationship between the child’s respiratory health (asthma, lung function, bronchodilator response) and exposures to ceramics, dry cleaning fluid, electroplating fluid, glues, leather, fabrics, dyes, insecticides, plastics, metal cleaning fluid, petrol, paint, photochemicals, electric wiring, machining, welding, X-rays, cleaning products, nail products, and “other exposures”. The impact of cigarette smoking in the home and family history on respiratory health were also investigated. Results: No associations were found between parental occupational exposures or child’s exposures in the home and respiratory health. Significant associations were observed between current smoking in the home and cigarette exposure in the first year of life and poor respiratory health in the children. Conclusion: We found no strong evidence of main effects of occupational exposures in impairing the respiratory health of primary school-aged children.

Aerosol Spectrometer was used for monitoring the indoor and outdoor mass concentration of fine PM 2.5 , PM 1.0 , PM 0.5 and PM 0.25 in homes, located in urban, roadside and rural area of Agra city located in the north central part of India. For chemical characterization samples are collected with medium volume sampler on PTFE filters. The collected filters were extracted in an ultrasonic extractor for the determination of water soluble ions. Concentrations for F – , Cl – , NO 3 – , and SO 4 2 – were determined by ion chromatography. Na + , K + , Ca 2+ , Ba + , and Mg 2+ determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrometer. The trends of particulate mass concentration indoors were rural>roadside>urban and for outdoors were roadside>rural>urban. PM 2.5 concentration in our results exceeded WHO guidelines by 8–10 times for outdoor and by 7–9 times for the indoor environment during the collection period. Water soluble species ranged from 60% to 92% (Avg 72%, SD 13%) for PM 2.5 total mass. The total sum of ionic concentrations in PM 2.5 follow the same trend as that by mass concentration. The average I/O ratios are found to be higher in PM 2.5 particles at rural and roadside sites indicating additional sources indoors at these sites.

Industrial areas are considered to have higher risk of air pollution impact especially to children living close to the industry. Two separate industrial areas in Indonesia were compared. The first location was in the area of coal transportation activity in South Kalimantan, and the second location was in the area of Bogor, West Java where used battery processing industry was often found. Fifty children (boys and girls, aged 6–15 years) were involved in South Kalimantan whereas in West Java there were 48 children (boys and girls, aged 10–12 years) involved. The control groups were also studied in both areas. Predicted average daily intake (ADD) of respirable particulate was estimated and respiratory function was measured using spirometer. The study showed that the PM2.5 concentration in industrial area was 3 times higher than those found in the control location. As a result, the predicted ADD of particulate of children living close to industry in South Kalimantan was 25.45±10.55 µg/kg.day whereas in West Java, the ADD was 1.5 times higher. For both studied area, boys’ respirable particulate intake was shown to have higher intake than those in girls. Lung function of children revealed that more than 68% of children in the coal transportation area had decreased pulmonary function. The study also noted that some children in West Java had indicated an obstructive and restrictive respiratory condition. The risk of girls having mild lung disease was found to be 1.3 times greater than those in the control group whereas in boys, the risk was 1.9 times than those in control area. Respiratory function of children in West Java study area was considered to worsen by the higher Pb emission from used battery processing activity.