Volume 76, Issue 1

This article reviews patterns, causes and consequences of gender-biased infestation of small mammalian hosts by macroparasites. We start with a description of gender biases in parasite infestation and discuss variation in these patterns among host and parasite taxa. We also look at temporal and spatial variations in gender-biased parasitism and demonstrate that they can vary seasonally and be mediated by environmental conditions. Then, we present main hypotheses that examine mechanisms of gender-biased parasitism. One group of these hypotheses focuses on differences between male and female hosts in their probability to be attacked by parasites, while another group links gender-biased parasitism with differences in parasite performance in male vs. female hosts. Finally, we discuss possible consequences of male-biased parasitism for individual parasites, their populations and communities.

Some of the ecological correlates of threatened endemic island rodents across 31 main islands/archipelagos worldwide are studied. Overall, there were 83 entirely endemic genera and 197 endemic species, with the number of both endemic genera and species positively correlating with (log) island size. Twenty-seven rodent genera, and 49 species, endemic to islands, are threatened with extinction, with the Oriental region housing the highest numbers of endemic threatened taxa. There was a significant positive relationship between (log) island size and number of threatened endemic species. The number of endemic species per island was also significantly positively correlated with the number of threatened species per island. A logit model revealed that the probability of the presence of at least one threatened endemic species was 0% for islands below 1560 km 2 , and 80% for islands sized about 3120 km 2 . The mean body weight of endemic threatened taxa increased significantly with increases of (log) island size (r=0.144, n=12, p=0.0096), and was particularly high in the Caribbean islands. Our study indirectly supported the notion that species linked to habitat fragments (=islands of remnant habitat) are more prone to extinction than species able to traverse suboptimal habitats (=seas of unsuitable habitat). Our results also demonstrated that the number of threatened endemic species per island was dependent on the total number of endemic species in each island, thus showing that tropical islands may be more prone to include assemblages of threatened endemic rodent species than temperate islands. Endemic species inhabiting islands of about 1500 km 2 are of immediate conservation concern because of their high probability of becoming extinct in the years to come, given that their counterparts from even smaller islands are already extinct since decades or hundreds of years ago.

A survey of cetaceans stranded along the Tunisian coastline (2004–2009) and a review of the literature allowed us to record a total number of 132 stranding events from 1937 to 2009. They included two species of balaenopteridae, one species of physeteridae and five species of delphinidae. The common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus (Montagu, 1821) and the fin whale Balaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus, 1758) were the main stranded species in 83 and 21 stranding cases, respectively, representing 78.78% of all records. Stranding events occurred all the year round, with the highest frequency in spring (21.68%) and summer (50.60%) for the common bottlenose dolphin and in winter for the fin whale (50%). The common bottlenose dolphin was more vulnerable to human and fisheries interaction while the fin whale was more prone to be trapped in shallow waters.

As an example of the niche overlap theories this paper reports grouping pattern, habitat use and overlap by four sympatric ungulate species, Chital ( Axis axis ), Sambar ( Rusa unicolor ), Nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus ) and Goral ( Naemorhedus goral ) in Pathri Rao Watershed within Shivalik Ecosystem, India. A length of 384 km of trail walk and 125 permanent circular plots of 10 m radius were used to collect data on group size, age, sex composition and various ecological and topographical factors governing presence/absence of species within the study area. Chital had the highest mean group size (7.74±1.19), followed by Nilgai (5.40±0.88), Goral (2.50±0.54) and Sambar (1.56±0.18). Group size of Chital varied significantly across seasons in comparison to the other sympatric ungulates. Chital used all the available habitat types with significant differential use (F=3.35, p<0.04). Goral and Sambar only used three habitat types with significant differences (Goral F=4.49, p<0.001; Sambar F=10.17, p<0.001). Nilgai used preferentially flat areas. Discriminant functions exceeded the classification accuracy expected by chance at a significant level of 0.01 (Press’s Q=131.90>6.63) with overall 52.3% of cases classified correctly. This analysis indicated clear segregation of the four species along the three discriminant functions with total isolation between Nilgai and Goral along the first axis. Niche overlap analysis predicted segregation of habitat use by sympatric species along one or other niche axis which governs continued existence of the sympatric species in the study area. Locations of artificial water holes determine grouping pattern, habitat use and habitat segregation, as expected by other ecological correlates in the study area.

This study aimed to detect the presence and the daily activity patterns of large mammals in a mixed forest in north-western Turkey. Field studies were carried out at 21 camera trap stations with a total sampling effort of 1046 camera trap days, covering an area of approximately 70 km 2 between June 2009 and January 2010. Brown bear ( Ursus arctos ), wolf ( Canis lupus ), Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx ), red deer ( Cervus elaphus ), wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), European badger ( Meles meles ) and European hare ( Lepus europaeus ) were not known to be present in the area. European hare was the most captured species among the others and Eurasian lynx was the most captured carnivore. There was a positive relationship between spatial distributions and daily activity patterns of European hare and Eurasian lynx. European hare, Eurasian lynx and red fox were found to have nocturnal activity in the study area. The number of records between the activity classes (nocturnal and diurnal) did not differ for red deer and wolf. This study revealed the ecological importance of the area by determining both the species present in this area and their activity patterns.

The biology of Eptesicus brasiliensis (Desmarest 1819) was analyzed using data from 14 locations in Rio de Janeiro State, Southeastern Brazil. Eptesicus brasiliensis was in a variety of habitats, from sea level to higher locations, although never represented in high numbers of captures. Most of the captures occurred over water. Bats were captured between 24 min before sunset to 700 min after sunset and showed a bimodal pattern. Four captures were observed before sunset, comprising two pregnant, one lactating and one inactive females. Only eight animals were captured 360 min after sunset, five of which being females with palpable fetuses. Males with scrotal testicles were observed between the months of November and April. Pregnant females were observed from October to February and lactating females from November to January. The period of male maximum sexual activity coincided with 75% of the period of pregnant females. Out of all the captured pregnant females, five had one or two embryos. A female gave birth to two neonates with weights of 1.8 and 1.9 g, representing 30.8% of the maternal weight. Male synchronicity needs more accurate techniques to ensure the reproductive strategy.

The dietary diversity of carnivores often varies inversely with prey abundance. Slight environmental perturbations, anthropogenic or otherwise, leading to lower prey availability, could affect the continued existence of mammalian carnivores in human-dominated landscapes. We examined the selection of prey by the smooth-coated otter in response to the variations in abundance of fish in Corbett Tiger Reserve in the Upper Gangetic Plains, India. Sixteen fish species were recorded from the Reserve; 14 from the lotic and five from lentic systems. In the lotic systems, the river cat ( Glyptothorax pectinopterus ) was most abundant during summer followed by ticto barb ( Puntius ticto ) and mahseer ( Tor spp.), while during winter mahseer was most abundant followed by chaguni ( Chagunius chagunio ) and minnow (Labeo dyocheilus ). The diet of otter included four prey categories, among which fish were the most dominant prey (84%). The other preys were amphibians, crabs and birds which were taken occasionally. There was no difference in the overall proportion of different prey categories utilized among seasons and sites. In the Reserve, eight fish species from the families Cyprinidae and Sisoridae were used. The ticto barb, chaguni, minnow and river cat were the most utilized species. The species used and their preference by otters varied from river to river depending on their availability in different seasons. The ticto barb was most utilized during summer, followed by river cat and hill trout. In winter river cat, chaguni and mahseer were the most utilized species. The otters used hill trout ( Barilius bendelisis ), sucker head ( Schizothorax richardsonii ) and ticto barb during summer and chaguni and minnow during winter more than their availability, indicating their preference.

The Brazilian Atlantic forest has been reduced to a small fraction of its original area, with most remaining fragments being small and surrounded by anthropogenic matrices. This degree of disturbance, together with the increasing sprawl of cities towards the rural zone, greatly facilitates the entrance of domestic animals into these remnants. We used camera traps to compare the abundances of the domestic dog with a similarly sized native carnivore, the ocelot, in a 957-ha reserve of the Brazilian Atlantic forest in a landscape largely composed by pastures and agriculture. The dog was the most recorded species among all 17 mammal species “captured” by the cameras. Dog abundance (32–38 dogs) and density (0.812–1.813 dogs/km 2 ) were significantly higher than that of the ocelot (n=2 ocelots; density=0.158–0.347 ocelots/km 2 ). Although our result is restricted to a single study site, it is supported by an increasing number of recent studies, which have detected dogs inside other Atlantic forest reserves. Our study suggests, therefore, that this invasion might be more widespread than generally thought. The presence of the domestic dog is a threat to native fauna and constitutes an important edge effect of human presence at the rural zone.

The garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) breeding season in Mediterranean regions is longer than in northerly parts of its distribution range. In this study, the yearly pattern of births and the variation of litter sizes in different seasons are described for a garden dormouse population of a Mediterranean orange plantation in Eastern Spain whose reproduction lasts all year. Data were obtained mainly by inspecting nest boxes, blackbird nests and the nests dormice built themselves. Two maxima were found in the breeding season, which coincided with the second fortnight of both January and March. The number of births was lower in the second half of the year. The number of cubs per litter ranged from three to ten and the mean (5.4) was larger than in Central Europe. No significant trend for seasonal variation in litter size was found.

Individuals of Akodon cursor were collected at fragments from the Atlantic Forest of Brazil and laboratory food preference experiments were performed. A preference index for each food item and the proportions of organic nutrients (glucids, protein, lipids and fibers) on the diet were calculated. Food items were grouped into fruits, seeds, roots, animal matter, arthropods, tubers and leaves, and their mass and proportions consumed were also calculated. Macroscopic digestive tract morphology was briefly described and the length of digestive organs was measured. Relations between the organic nutrient mass consumption, food type mass consumption and the digestive tract organ relative length were analyzed using Akaike’s information criteria. Fruits, seeds and roots made the most abundant food categories of the diet of A. cursor and presented the majority of preferred food items. Arthropods and seeds are related to protein consumption. Animal items are not considered preferred but were eventually chosen and are important for protein supply. Fruits and roots are the major source of glucids. Akodon cursor has simple macroscopic digestive organ morphology. Relations were found between lipids consumption and small intestine and caecum length. Akodon cursor is an omnivorous species and different food items are important for its nutritional supply even those that are considered non-preferred.

Cranial suture closures in the black-capped squirrel monkey Saimiri boliviensis were examined. Sequences in closure and morphological changes during ontogeny were interpreted as indicators of skeletal strains and age. Some sutures seem to be more reliable determinants of skeletal age than others. As found in other species of Saimiri , the palatal and rostral portion of the maxillo-premaxillaris suture show regular fusion associated with earlier age. The predictable sequence was: (1) maxillo-premaxillary and zygomatico frontal (orbital part), (2) transverse maxillo-premaxillary, (3) spheno-occipital, (4) internasalis, (5) palatal portion of interpremaxillar, denoting a relatively conservative pattern in the genus. However, most sutures were patent still in older specimens. The ontogenetic variation in the suture morphology was pointed to the acquisition of complex interdigitation and overlapping. The general trend detected indicates that the ectocranial sutures of S. boliviensis acquire progressively more capacity for strength support because the crescent interdigitation of sutures functionally committed with mastication and growth, as those of vault, rostrum and palate.

Examination of skulls and mandibles reveals a consistent and previously undocumented means of distinguishing sex in lions ( Panthera leo ), on the basis of a phenomenon unique among Carnivora. Male lions show a pattern of increased pore-like porosity in the maxillary region, superficial and proximal to the root of the upper canine teeth. Although some porosity is present in females, pores are less common, smaller, less obvious and primarily restricted to the bulge in the maxilla that marks the root of the upper canine tooth. Increased porosity (fine pores) is also a gender-independent feature of young individuals. This feature remains prominent throughout the lives of males, whereas porosity diminishes as females approach adult size. Juvenile male lions show a rapid increase in head size, correlated with the time immediately prior to dispersal from the natal pride. Specifically, increases in the rate of growth of cranial features, including the dentition and facial musculature are reflected in these changes. The rapid alteration of these features in maturing male lions indicates readiness to compete for social status with adult pride males. It is hypothesized that maxillary porosity is the anatomical correlate of this phenomenon.

This study examined the spatial ecology of Geoffroy’s cats, Leopardus geoffroyi, living in a protected area surrounded by croplands in the Argentine grasslands. A total of six different adults were marked with 14 radio-collars from 2001 to 2005 but only three (one female and two males) produced a meaningful amount of data (54–135 positions). Total home range size was 8.83±1.58 km 2 (100% Minimum Convex Polygon) and 7.27±2.23 km 2 (90% Fixed Kernel). Core areas averaged 1.46±0.84 km 2 . Geoffroy’s cats most frequently used Exotic Woodland areas followed by Rocky and Agricultural areas. All cats clearly avoided natural habitats and selected Exotic Woodland at the two levels of selection examined: within the study area and within home ranges. In our study area, Geoffroy’s cats’ home ranges were larger than all those previously recorded in natural areas. The Geoffroy’s cat preference for Exotic Wood patches and avoidance of natural grasslands was likely due to the degradation of natural habitats caused by a dense population of feral horses. We also argue that woodlands can play an important role in the ecology of this species, either as refuge, hunting area or for territorial marking, regardless of their origin.

No abstract available

No abstract available