Volume 12, Issue 1

Postmodern accounts of politeness are founded on the idea that theoretical ‘second order’ conceptualizations (e.g., politeness2) must be grounded in ‘first order’ interlocutor interpretations (e.g., politeness1). One consequence of this assumption is that the generalizability of all theoretical conceptualizations has been called into question (e.g., Eelen 2001). Some even declare an end to “the age of grand theorizing” (Mills 2011: 34). The current analysis rejects this conclusion. Rather, it argues that a culture-general construct can be valid assuming it provides an account of underlying cognitive processing mechanisms. In line with this argument, a social cognitive account is presented which describes relational work in terms of the underlying cognitive processing mechanism ‘salience’. Specifically, behaviors which conform to norms and expectations are defined as salient in a ‘correlative’ fashion and behaviors which go against expectations as salient in a ‘contrastive’ fashion. By incorporating these two seemingly contradictory dimensions of salience, and the affective response associated with each, a culture-general account is achieved which is independent of and yet compatible with culture-specific analyses. This account, it is further demonstrated, overcomes a variety of limitations associated with previous accounts including their inability to provide a unified account of deference and volitional type linguistic phenomena.

The present study explores the use of the genre of service encounters to teach (about) politeness strategies in the kindergarten. My teaching proposal involves a critical approach to politeness strategies which is expected to enhance students’ awareness of the social/interactional aspects of service encounters, and in particular to familiarize them with positive and negative politeness and with how the speech acts they may use in such contexts contribute to creating solidarity or distance with their interlocutors. Since young children participate in such interactions outside school, their own experiences could form the basis for language teaching. Concurrently, kindergartens are often equipped to host role play activities simulating service encounters, and teachers are usually trained to assist children in such activities. Given the above, the present teaching proposal will be based on the multiliteracies model which aims at cultivating students’ critical literacy skills and exploits children’s communicative and textual experiences. The presentation of the teaching proposal here includes not only specific activities and goals that could be set by teachers and children, but also the analysis of authentic data, so as to assist teachers in the preparation of their courses.

This study investigated instances of Persian genuine and ostensible (ritual) refusals produced in response to genuine offers and invitations. The data was collected through ethnographic observations and was analyzed in light of a modified version of defining properties and features of ostensible speech acts proposed by Isaacs and Clark (1990). Furthermore, cultural schemas and sociocultural norms underlying ostensible refusals in Persian were investigated through focus group interviews (FGI). The results revealed that although the features of ostensible speech acts proposed by Isaacs and Clark (1990) are present in ostensible refusals in Persian, they are not always sufficient to distinguish Persian ritual and genuine refusals. The results of the focus group interviews also showed that ritual refusals in Persian are complex speech acts strongly linked to Persian cultural schemas of tǎ’ǎrof (ritual politeness) and ru-dar-bǎyesti (feeling of distance out of respect). The findings indicated that the main factors motivating the production of ritual refusals in Persian are observing rules of politeness and enhancing the face of the speaker as well as that of the interlocutor. Therefore, the pretence in sincerity of the ritual refusals arise from the speakers’ concern for maintaining rapport.

Fictional texts constitute complex communicative acts between an author and an audience, and they regularly depict interactions between characters. Both levels are susceptible to an analysis of politeness. This is particularly true for early eighteenth-century drama, which – in the context of the age of politeness – established new dramatic genres to educate and edify their audiences. Characters were used to demonstrate good or bad behaviour as examples to be followed or avoided. Early eighteenth-century drama was a reaction against what was considered to be the immorality and profanity of Restoration drama of the seventeenth century. Two plays serve as illustrations and a testing ground for an analysis of fictional politeness that considers both communicative levels; the play itself and the interactions within the play. Richard Steele’s sentimental comedy “The Conscious Lovers” (1722) gives an example of good behaviour by being exceedingly polite to the audience in the theatre through characters that are exceedingly polite to each other; and George Lillo’s domestic tragedy “The London Merchant, or the History of George Barnwell” (1731) shows the “private woe” of everyday characters in order to warn the younger generation against wrongdoing and to propagate middle-class virtues and moral values.

This paper addresses the methodology and theory of research on conversational humour in the context of (im)politeness theory, focusing on the production and reception ends (the speaker’s intention and the hearer’s evaluation respectively). In the light of a critical overview of the relevant scholarship from both humour and impoliteness studies, several notions are elucidated, such as mock (im)politeness or banter. Generally, conversational humour forms may give rise to face-saving and rapport, thereby subscribing to (solidarity) politeness; and/or face-threat and conflict indicative of impoliteness. Moreover, impoliteness can be viewed as a source of humour in its own right, especially in media entertainment discourse. Additionally, one utterance may invite diverging evaluations on the part of the various participants, depending on their interactional statuses: the butt/target or the receiver of humour, which is most pronounced in media discourse. This discussion on the interdependence between humour and (im)politeness is conducted with reference to film talk and is illustrated with humorous extracts taken from the American series entitled “House”.