Volume 5, Issue 4

Photodynamic antimicrobial therapy (PACT) involves the utilisation of photosensitizers activated by exposure to visible light in order to eradicate microbes (this method has already been applied in photodynamic therapy of tumours). Photodynamic effect of the particular photosensitive substance (PS) is attributed to its ability to penetrate susceptible microorganisms, to absorb the light of certain wavelength, and to generate reactive cytotoxic oxygen products. The target microorganisms for photoinactivation are bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa. Photodynamic antimicrobial therapy is proposed as a potentially topical, non-invasive approach suitable for treatment of locally occurring infection. The fact that bacteria are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics and antiseptics has lead to an increased interest in the development of new alternative eradication methods, such as PACT. Research and development of photosensitive substances are aimed at finding effective antimicrobial substances, which would have a broad-spectrum potency.

The human genome encodes six proteins of family 18 glycosyl hydrolases, two active chitinases and four chitinase-like lectins (chi-lectins) lacking catalytic activity. The present article is dedicated to homology modeling of 3D structure of human chitinase 3-like 2 protein (CHI3L2), which is overexpressed in glial brain tumors, and its structural comparison with homologous chi-lectin CHI3L1. Two crystal structures of CHI3L1 in free state (Protein Data Bank codes 1HJX and 1NWR) were used as structural templates for the homology modeling by Modeller 9.7 program, and the best quality model structure was selected from the obtained model ensemble. Analysis of potential oligosaccharide-binding groove structures of CHI3L1 and CHI3L2 revealed significant differences between these two homologous proteins. 8 of 19 amino acid residues important for ligand binding are substituted in CHI3L2: Tyr34/Asp39, Trp69/Lys74, Trp71/Lys76, Trp99/Tyr104, Asn100/Leu105, Met204/Leu210, Tyr206/Phe212 and Arg263/His271. The differences between these residues could influence the structure of the ligand-binding groove and substantially change the ability of CHI3L2 to bind oligosaccharide ligands.

We evaluated possible roles of interleukin-8 gene polymorphisms (1633T/C-rs2227543, 251A/T-rs4073) and interleukin-18 gene polymorphisms (-607C/A-rs1946518, -137G/C-rs187238) in the development of diabetic retinopathy (DR) in Caucasians with type 2 diabetes. 271 patients with DR and 113 without diabetic retinopathy were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. We did not observe an association between either interleukin-8 gene polymorphisms (1633T/C, 251A/T) or interleukin-18 gene polymorphisms (-607C/A, -137G/C) and diabetic retinopathy in Caucasians with type 2 diabetes. We did not find statistically significant differences in interleukin-8 serum levels between diabetics with the TT and AA genotype and those with other genotypes. The interleukin-18 serum levels between diabetics with the CC genotype of the -607C/A polymorphism and those with other genotypes (AA, AC) were not significantly different. Moreover, we did not observe a statistically significant effect of the tested polymorphisms of either interleukin-8 or interleukin-18 genes on serum levels in diabetics. In conclusion, our study indicates that the examined polymorphisms of interleukin-8 (1633T/C, 251A/T) and interleukin-18 (-607C/A or the -137G/C) genes are not genetic risk factors for diabetic retinopathy. Therefore, they may not be used as genetic markers for diabetic retinopathy in Caucasians with type 2 diabetes.

Angiogenesis, the process of generating new blood vessels, is essential to embryonic development, organ formation, tissue regeneration and remodeling, reproduction and wound healing. Also, it plays an important role in many pathological conditions, including chronic inflammation and cancer. Angiogenesis is regulated by a complex interplay of growth factors, inflammatory mediators, adhesion molecules, morphogens and guidance molecules. Transcription factor SOX18 is transiently expressed in nascent endothelial cells during embryonic development and postnatal angiogenesis, but little is known about signaling pathways controlling its expression. The aim of this study was to investigate whether pro-angiogenic molecules and pharmacological inhibitors of angiogenesis modulate SOX18 expression in endothelial cells. Therefore, we treated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) with angiogenic factors, extracellular matrix proteins, inflammatory cytokines and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) and monitored SOX18 expression. We have observed that the angiogenic factor VEGF and the inflammatory cytokine TNF increase, while the NSAID ibuprofen and NS398 decrease the SOX18 protein level. These results for the first time demonstrate that SOX18 expression is modulated by factors and drugs known to positively or negatively regulate angiogenesis. This opens the possibility of pharmacological manipulation of SOX18 gene expression in endothelial cells to stimulate or inhibit angiogenesis.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) has four isoforms: α, β, γ and δ. STAT3α and STAT3β are the transcriptionally active isoforms, while STAT3γ and STAT3δ are the products of STAT3 proteolytic degradation. STAT3 plays an important role in angiogenesis, cell proliferation and apoptosis. High levels of STAT3β in blood cells from acute leukaemia patients have been reported, suggesting that STAT3β may play an important role in cancerogenesis. Fourteen pancreatic cancer patients and six chronic pancreatitis patients were included in this pilot study. Levels of STAT3 isoforms from samples with pancreatic cancer and in adjacent histologically-normal pancreatic tissue were analysed. Pancreas from chronic pancreatitis patients served as a non-neoplastic tissue. Western-blot analysis of STAT3 proteins with the use of anti-STAT3 antibodies was performed. STAT3α and STAT3β isoforms in both cancerous and in adjacent normal tissues were found in 10 of 14. In chronic pancreatitis patients, only STAT3α and STAT3δ were detected. STAT3β was absent in pancreas from chronic pancreatitis patients, in contrast to pancreatic cancer patients. The presence of STAT3β in pancreatic cancer and in adjacent histologically-normal tissues, but not in inflamed tissues suggests that STAT3β may play a key role in cancer development.

Apoptosis is implicated in unfavorable remodeling of the left ventricle during acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Both DNA damage and p53 play important roles in regulating apoptosis. Expression patterns of apoptotic regulating genes such as p53, bax, and bcl-2 highlight the importance of inhibiting ventricle remodeling and subsequent injuries. In the present study, serum levels of p53 and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) as well as p53, bax, and bcl-2 expression were examined after the onset of AMI in Iranian patients. Serum levels of p53 and 8-OHdG were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the presence of p53 protein and mRNA expression of p53, bax, and bcl-2 were analyzed by Western blotting and real time RT-PCR methods respectively. In patients presenting with AMI, serum levels of p53 and 8-OHdG were increased in comparison to healthy controls. Likewise, transcripts of p53 and bax were also elevated in patients while bcl-2 was decreased. Collectively, our data suggest the novel use of p53 and 8-OHdG as markers of apoptosis and DNA damage following AMI. Our results also revealed that apoptosis occurs in concert with an up-regulation of p53 and bax and a down-regulation of bcl-2 which may suggest a possible therapeutic intervention in patients recovering from AMI.

The production of human interferon alpha2b (IFN-α2b) in two expression systems, tobacco (Nicotiana tabaccum) and Escherichia coli, was compared in various aspects such as safety, yield, quality of product and productivity. In the E. coli system, IFN-α2b was expressed under a pelB signal sequence and a T7lac promoter in a pET 26b(+) vector. The same gene was also cloned in expression plant vector (pCAMBIA1304) between cauliflower mosaic virus promoter (CaMV35S) and poly A termination region (Nos) and expressed in transgenic tobacco plants. The expression of protein in both systems was confirmed by western immunoblotting and the quantity of the protein was determined by immunoassay. The amount of periplasmic expression in E. coli was 60 µg/L of culture, while the amount of nuclear expression in the plant was 4.46 µg/kg of fresh leaves. The result of this study demonstrated that IFN-α2b was successfully expressed in periplasm of bacterial and plant systems. The limitations on the production of IFN-α2b by both systems are addressed and discussed to form the basis for the selection of the appropriate expression platform.

Bones adjust their structure to withstand the mechanical demands they experience. It is suggested that flow-derived shear stress may be the most significant and primary mediator of mechanical stimulation. In this study, we designed and fabricated a fluid flow cell culture system that can load shear stress onto cells cultured on 3D scaffolds. We evaluated the effect of different culture techniques, namely, (1) continuous perfusion fluid flow, (2) intermittent perfusion fluid flow, and (3) static condition, on the proliferation of osteoblasts seeded on partially deproteinized bones. The flow rate was set at 1 ml/min for all the cells cultured using flow perfusion and the experiment was conducted for 12 days. Scanning electron microscopy analysis indicated an increase in cell proliferation for scaffolds subjected to fluid shear stress. In addition, the long axes of these cells lengthened along the flowing fluid direction. Continuous perfusion significantly enhanced cell proliferation compared to either intermittent perfusion or static condition. All the results demonstrated that fluid shear stress is able to enhance the proliferation of cells and change the form of cells.

Testosterone (T) is known to affect spatial abilities in men and women. Studies focusing on this relationship showed that both endogenous variability of T and administration of exogenous T, altered mental rotation and spatial visualization. Organizational and activational effects of T can be separately identified. The aim of our study was to evaluate the activational effects of exogenous T on spatial memory in male and female rats. T was administered 3 times a week over a two week period in either 1 mg/kg for low testosterone group or 10 mg/kg for high testosterone group. The Morris water maze was performed to assess the rat’s working and reference spatial memory. T and estradiol levels were measured in plasma. Increase in plasma T levels was confirmed in the experimental groups in comparison to the control groups (receiving sterile oil, 3 times a week over a two week period). Low dose T impaired working, but improved reference memory in female rats. In male rats the negative effects of T (both doses) on reference memory were shown. This experiment showed that the activational effects of exogenous testosterone on spatial memory of rats were gender and dose-dependent.

We tested the combined effect of the fungus Beauveria bassiana and the microsporidium Nosema pyrausta on the European corn borer larvae, Ostrinia nubilalis, in the laboratory. The first instar of O. nubilalis larvae was the most sensitive to the B. bassiana infection followed by the fifth, second, third, and fourth instar (LC50s were 4.91, 6.67, 7.13, 9.15, and 6.51 × 105 conidia/ml for the first to fifth instars, respectively). Mortality of each instar increases positively with concentration of conidia. When B. bassiana and N. pyrausta were used in combination, mortality increased significantly in all instars. Relative to the B. bassiana treatment alone, the B. bassiana + N. pyrausta treatment decreased the LC50s by 42.16%, 37.63%, 21.60%, 27.11%, and 33.95% for the first to fifth instars, respectively. The combined effects of the two pathogens were mostly additive. However, at the two highest concentrations the pathogens interacted synergistically in the first and second instar. Individuals that survived the B. bassiana and B. bassiana + N. pyrausta treatments and developed into adults had significantly shorter lifespans and females oviposited fewer eggs than non-exposed insects. The effects on the longevity and the egg production were most pronounced at high concentration of B. bassiana conidia.

Inoculating plants that have inefficient antioxidant systems with plant-associated bacteria allows them to overcome heavy metal intoxication. We monitored protein oxidation, the activity of plant defense system enzymes, and the phenolics content in soybean (Glycine max L.) during a prolonged exposure to cadmium (Cd). The assistance of the bacterial consortium reduced the bioavailability of Cd in a soil containing 10 times the metal’s Standard Maximum Value (SMV). This reduced the accumulation of Cd in the soybeans’ roots and seeds. At 100 SMV, bacterial inoculation resulted in increased Cd bioavailability, which enhanced cadmium uptake by the soybean plants. At both Cd concentrations, oxidative stress was more prolonged in the soybean’s roots than its leaves. In cadmium-polluted soil, glutathion peroxidase activity changed more rapidly in the roots of plants when they had been inoculated. Inhibition of the peroxidases’ activities strengthened the activity of glutathione-S-transferase; increased the phenolics content in plant roots; and alleviated stress in inoculated soybean plants compared to untreated plants. The bacterial consortium may be recommended for a plant protection at 10 SMV Cd in the soil, and for phytostabilization at 100 SMV.

The aim of the present study is to investigate the antibacterial activity of Salvia officinalis L. aqueous extracts and its synergistic action with preservatives sodium nitrite, sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate in vitro against selected food spoiling bacteria. Synergy was assessed by the checkerboard assay method and quantitatively represented by the FIC index. Synergistic action was established for aqueous extract/ sodium benzoate, aqueous extract/ potassium sorbate, aqueous extract/ sodium nitrite combinations. Synergy was detected in relation to: Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Bacillus subtilis and Proteus sp. Synergy was established at plant extract and preservative concentrations corresponding up to 1/8 MIC values.

The red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) is widely distributed in Lithuania and occupies a range of habitats. The presence of coadapted gene pools in local populations of R. idaeus is a question of interest not only to plant scientists, but also to plant breeders. In this study, we investigated the genetic structure of R. idaeus and the influence of local habitats on the genetic diversity within and among populations. Nineteen populations of R. idaeus were sampled from different habitats in various agroclimatic subregions of Lithuania, and analyzed using RAPD markers. 113 RAPD bands were identified among 315 individuals; 84.31% of these were polymorphic. The mean values of Shannon’s information index for different populations ranged from 0.341 to 0.455. Nei’s gene diversity established within populations averaged 0.266. An AMOVA revealed 74% of genetic variation among individuals within populations of R. idaeus, and 23% among populations. The remaining genetic variation was distributed among populations from different agroclimatic subregions (3%). The results of this study suggest that the genetic structure of R. idaeus populations in Lithuania may be influenced partially by isolation by distance as well as by local environmental conditions.

The Hadera River is the most polluted among the Mediterranean coastal rivers of Israel due to abundant E. coli, high concentrations of heavy metals and nutrients, and high temperatures. In 2003–2008 we found 191 species of algae and cyanobacteria belonging to seven taxonomic divisions. The upper reaches were dominated by cyanobacteria and exhibited levels of toxic pollution. Downstream, the ecological niches of algal communities dramatically changed: upper stream diversity first increased and then decreased due to the influx of rainwater in the tidal zone during winter. On one hand, seasonal dynamics show that in winter, inorganic contamination was reduced because of dilution by the influx of rainwater, but, on the other hand, organic pollution increased from agriculture. Down the river, diversity increases and the community composition undergoes considerable change. In summer, algal blooms indicate a reduction of stress and aid in the river’s self-purification. The WESI indices and RPI show steady year-round stressful conditions for algal photosynthesis with increasing instability in the river. Perpetuation of the current situation would disturb the self-purification capacity of the river ecosystem through destruction of biotic components. Statistical analysis (CCA) reveals the impact of wastewater as the most important stress factor for the Hadera River ecosystem, which is an exceptionally strong example of self-purification.

Data collected from 183 poplar and 102 willow SRC experimental plots, located in Central-North Italy, were subjected to stepwise regression analysis to acquire information on the environmental factors affecting plant survival and productivity in the first two-year rotation cycle. Nine Populus ×canadensis Mönch, eight P. deltoids Bartr. clones and four hybrids of Sali× matsudana Koidz were included in analysis. Independent variables were: annual and seasonal water availability (rainfall and irrigation), annual mean air temperature, soil texture, pH, N and organic matter content, planting density and management intensity. Dependent variables were: a) mean annual yield during the first two-year rotation cycle in tons per hectare per year of dry matter (Odt·ha−1·y−1); b) plant survival at the end of the second year from planting (%). Water availability resulted the main variable driving plant survival and biomass production in both poplar and willow clones. Water availability appeared to be the principal factor affecting the establishment of poplar and willow energy plantations in the Po valley. Possible variations in the rainfall regime consequent to climate changes could seriously influence land suitability to SRC. Experimental data also indicate that choice of planting density may increase the biomass yield during the first two-year especially with P. deltoides clones.