Home Physical Sciences Micro- and nano-scale study of deformation induced mineral transformations in Mg-phyllosilicate-rich fault gouges from the Galera Fault Zone (Betic Cordillera, SE Spain)
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Micro- and nano-scale study of deformation induced mineral transformations in Mg-phyllosilicate-rich fault gouges from the Galera Fault Zone (Betic Cordillera, SE Spain)

  • Catalina Sánchez-Roa , Blanca Bauluz , Fernando Nieto , Isabel Abad , Juan Jimenéz-Millán and Daniel Faulkner
Published/Copyright: September 28, 2018
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Author Information
American Mineralogist
From the journal American Mineralogist Volume 103 Issue 10

Abstract

Naturally and experimentally deformed gouges from sliding surfaces within the Galera Fault Zone were analyzed using scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM, TEM) to identify changes in the fault rocks as a consequence of ongoing deformation. The two gouges studied have a particular mineral association that includes planar (mainly smectite and illite) and fibrous clay minerals (sepiolite and palygorskite). Microstructural findings include a radical difference in grain alignment between the two gouges, a phenomenon that strongly influences gouge permeability. Smectite crystals are aligned on the same orientation and show a great number of layer terminations and delamination on the basal planes that contribute to a distributed mode of deformation in the gouge. In contrast, the sepiolite-rich gouge exhibits a grid-like microfabric that results in localized deformation limited to small areas where the needle-like crystals are bent and broken producing “feather-like” structures, without the presence of lattice distortions. Meanwhile, significant chemical results include: (1) Al content identified in sepiolite fibers through analytical electron microscopy (AEM), together with variability in the (110) d-spacing of sepiolite across single fibers, suggest the existence of a progressive transformation from sepiolite to palygorskite. (2) Mg content in smectite suggests that a portion of the smectites within the fault plane could have an authigenic origin and may be the result of a transformation reaction from palygorskite, however, the similarity of the 2:1 layer compositions between the smectites in the two contexts do not allow to either confirm nor deny such possibility. (3) Chemical continuity of Mg-decrease and Al+Fe-increase in the octahedral cation content of the sepiolites, palygorskites, and smectites within the gouges indicate a sequence of mineral transformations that is favored by a depleted Mg content and an increase of Al content in the fluid. In this setting, deformation promotes grain size reduction and fluid-rock interaction with the wall rocks resulting in a local supply of Al to the fault gouge that drives phase transformations. Structural differences between smectites and fibrous clay minerals affect important chemical and physical properties of the gouge including their mechanical properties. We propose that the permeability of the gouges in the Galera Fault is strongly affected by their mineralogy. Furthermore, the extent of the mineral authigenesis and mineral transformations could be a controlling factor that progressively changes both the permeability and the strength of the fault.

Keywords: Fibrous clay minerals; mineral transformations; fault zones; mineralogy of fault rocks; sepiolite; palygorskite; smectite; HR-TEM

Acknowledgments

The authors thank M.M. Abad-Ortega, A. Martinez-Morales, M.A. Laguna, A. Ibarra, and R. Fernández-Pacheco for their support in electron microscopy data acquisition. The authors thank the reviewers E. García-Romero and M. Krekeler for their comments that led to significant improvements. This work has been financed by the research projects CGL2011-30153-C02-01, CGL2011-30153-C02-02, and CGL2013-46169-C2-1-P from MINECO, research project UJA2014/06/17 from the Universidad-Caja Rural de Jaén, Research Groups RNM-179 and RNM-325 of the Junta de Andalucía, U.K. NERC grant NE/J024449/1 and the F.P.I. Grant No. BES-2012-052 562 from the Spanish Government (Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad).

References cited

Abad, I., Nieto, F., and Velilla, N. (2002) Chemical and textural characterisation of diagenetic to low-grade metamorphic phyllosilicates in turbidite sandstones of the South Portuguese Zone: A comparison between metapelites and sandstones. Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, 82, 303–324.Search in Google Scholar

Beeler, N.M. (2007) Laboratory-observed faulting in intrinsically and apparently weak materials. The Seismogenic Zone of Subduction Thrust Faults, 370–449.Search in Google Scholar

Behnsen, J., and Faulkner, D.R. (2011) Water and argon permeability of phyllosilicate powders under medium to high pressure. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 116, 12, 1–13. 10.1029/2011JB008600.Search in Google Scholar

Behnsen, J., and Faulkner, D.R. (2013) Permeability and frictional strength of cation-exchanged montmorillonite. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 118, 6, 2788–2798. 10.1002/jgrb.50226.Search in Google Scholar

Bozhilov, K.N., Brownstein, D., and Jenkins, D.M. (2007) Biopyribole evolution during tremolite synthesis from dolomite and quartz in CO2-H2O fluid. American Mineralogist, 92, 898–908. 10.2138/am.2007.2376.Search in Google Scholar

Brace, W.F., Walsh, J.B., and Frangos, W.T. (1968) Permeability of granite under high pressure. Journal of Geophysical Research, 73, 6.Search in Google Scholar

Cliff, G., and Lorimer, G.W. (1975) The quantitative analysis of thin specimens: Journal of Microscopy, 103, 203–207. 10.1111/j.1365–2818.1975.tb03895.xSearch in Google Scholar

Cox, S.F., Knackstedt, M.A., and Braun, J. (2001) Principles of structural control on permeability and fluid flow in hydrothermal systems. Reviews in Economic Geology, 14, 1–24.Search in Google Scholar

Faulkner, D.R., Jackson, C.A.L., Lunn, R.J., Schlische, R.W., Shipton, Z.K., Wibberley, C.A.J., and Withjack, M.O. (2010) A review of recent developments concerning the structure, mechanics and fluid flow properties of fault zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 32, 11, 1557–1575. 10.1016/j.jsg.2010.06.009.Search in Google Scholar

Faulkner, D.R., Sánchez-Roa, C., Boulton, C., and den Hartog, S.A.M. (2018) Pore fluid pressure development in compacting fault gouge in theory, experiments, and nature. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 123. https://doi.oig/10.1002/2017JB015130.Search in Google Scholar

French, M.E., Chester, F.M., and Chester, J.S. (2015) Micromechanisms of creep in clay-rich gouge from the Central Deforming Zone of the San Andreas Fault. Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth, 120, 827–849. 10.1002/2014JB011496.Search in Google Scholar

García-Romero, E., and Suárez, M. (2010) On the chemical composition of sepiolite and palygorskite. Clays and Clay Minerals, 58, 1–20. 10.1346/CCMN.2010.0580101.Search in Google Scholar

García-Tortosa, F.J., Alfaro, P., Sanz de Galdeano, C., and Galindo-Zaldívar, J. (2011) Glacis geometry as a geomorphic marker of recent tectonics: The Guadix-Baza basin (South Spain). Geomorphology, 125, 517–529. 10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.10.021.Search in Google Scholar

Giese, R.F. (1978) Electrostatic interlayer forces of layer structure minerals. Clays and Clay Minerals, 26, 51–57. 10.1346/CCMN.1978.0260106.Search in Google Scholar

Golden, D.C., and Dixon, J.B. (1990) Low-temperature alteration of palygorskite to smectite. Clay and Clay Minerals, 38, 401–408.Search in Google Scholar

Guven, N., and Carney, L.L. (1979) Hydrothermal transformation of sepiolite to stevensite and the effect of added chlorides and hydroxides. Clays and Clay Minerals, 27, 253–260. 10.1346/CCMN.1979.0270403.Search in Google Scholar

Hadizadeh, J., Mittempergher, S., Gratier, J.P., Renard, F., Di Toro, G., Richard, J., and Babaie, H.A. (2012) A microstructural study of fault rocks from the SAFOD: Implications for the deformation mechanisms and strength of the creeping segment of the San Andreas Fault. Journal of Structural Geology, 42, 246–260. 10.1016/j.jsg.2012.04.011.Search in Google Scholar

Haines, S.H., and van der Pluijm, B.A. (2012) Patterns of mineral transformations in clay gouge, with examples from low-angle normal fault rocks in the western USA. Journal of Structural Geology, 43, 2–32. 10.1016/j.jsg.2012.05.004.Search in Google Scholar

Haines, S.H., Kaproth, B., Marone, C., Saffer, D., and Van der Pluijm, B. (2013) Shear zones in clay-rich fault gouge: A laboratory study of fabric development and evolution: Journal of Structural Geology, 51, 206–225. 10.1016/j.jsg.2013.01.002.Search in Google Scholar

Hickman, S., Sibson, R., and Bruhn, R. (1995) Mechanical involvement of fluids in faulting: Journal of Geophysical Research, 100, 12831–12840. 10.1029/94EO01059.Search in Google Scholar

Houwers, M.E., Heijnen, L.J., Becker, A., and Rijkers, R. (2015) A Workflow for the Estimation of Fault Zone Permeability for Geothermal Production A General Model Applied on the Roer Valley Graben in the Netherlands. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2015, April 9.Search in Google Scholar

Hower, J., Eslinger, E.V., Hower, M.E., and Perry, E.A. (1976) Mechanism of burial metamorphism of argillaceos sediment. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 87, 725–737.Search in Google Scholar

Ibanez, W.D., and Kronenberg, A.K. (1993) Experimental deformation of shale: Mechanical properties and microstructural indicators of mechanisms. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 30, 723–734. 10.1016/0148-9062(93)90014-5.Search in Google Scholar

Janssen, C., Wirth, R., Wenk, H.R., Morales, L., Naumann, R., Kienast, M., Song, S.R., and Dresen, G. (2014) Faulting processes in active faults—Evidences from TCDP and SAFOD drill core samples. Journal of Structural Geology, 65, 100–116. 10.1016/j.jsg.2014.04.004.Search in Google Scholar

Kim, J.W., Peacor, D.R., Tessier, D., and Elsass, F. (1995) A technique for maintaining texture and permanent expansion of smectite interlayers for TEM observations. Clays and Clay Minerals, 43, 51–57. 10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430106.Search in Google Scholar

Krekeler, M.P.S., and Guggenheim, S. (2008) Defects in microstructure in palygorskite-sepiolite minerals: A transmission electron microscopy (TEM) study. Applied Clay Science, 39, 98–105. 10.1016/j.clay.2007.05.001.Search in Google Scholar

Krekeler, M.P.S., Guggenheim, S., and Rakovan, J. (2004) A microtexture study of palygorskite-rich sediments from the Hawthorne Formation, Southern Georgia, by transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Clays and Clay Minerals, 52, 263–274.Search in Google Scholar

Krekeler, M.P.S., Hammerly, E., Rakovan, J., and Guggenheim, S. (2005) Microscopy studies of the palygorskite to smectite transformation. Clays and Clay Minerals, 53, 94–101.Search in Google Scholar

Logan, J.M., Friedman, M., Higgs, N., Dengo, C., and Shimamoto, T. (1979) Experimental studies of simulated gouge and their application to studies of natural fault zones. In U.S. Geological Survey, Proceedings of the Conference VIII—Analysis of Actual Fault Zones in Bedrock, p. 305–343.Search in Google Scholar

Mares, V.M., and Kronenberg, A.K. (1993) Experimental deformation of muscovite. Journal of Structural Geology, 15, 1061–1075. 10.1016/0191-8141(93)90156-5.Search in Google Scholar

Mitchell, T.M., and Faulkner, D.R. (2008) Experimental measurements of permeability evolution during triaxial compression of initially intact crystalline rocks and implications for fluid flow in fault zones. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 113, 1–16. 10.1029/2008JB005588.Search in Google Scholar

Moore, D.E., and Lockner, D.A. (2004) Crystallographic controls on the frictional behavior of dry and water-saturated sheet structure minerals. Journal of Geophysical Research, 109, B03401, 1–16. 10.1029/2003JB002582.Search in Google Scholar

Nieto, F., Arroyo, X., and Aróstegui, J. (2016) XRD-TEM-AEM comparative study of n-alkylammonium smectites and interstratified minerals in shallow-diagenetic carbonate sediments of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin. American Mineralogist, 101, 385–398. https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2016-5301.Search in Google Scholar

Oohashi, K., Hirose, T., Takahashi, M., and Tanikawa, W. (2015) Dynamic weakening of smectite-bearing faults at intermediate velocities: Implications for subduction zone earthquakes. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 120, 11881. 10.1002/2015JB011881.Search in Google Scholar

Overwijk, M.H.F. (1993) Novel scheme for the preparation of transmission electron microscopy specimens with a focused ion beam: Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B. Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures, 11, 6, 2021–2024. 10.1116/1.586537.Search in Google Scholar

Peacor, D.R. (1992) Analytical electron microscopy. In P.R. Buseck, Ed., Minerals and Reactions at the Atomic Scale: Transmission Electron Microscopy, p. 113–140. Reviews of Mineralogy, Mineralogical Society of America, Chantilly, Virginia.Search in Google Scholar

Rutter, E.H., Maddock, R.H., Hall, S.H., and White, S.H. (1986) Comparative microstructures of natural and experimentally produced clay-bearing fault gouges. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 124, 3–30. 10.1007/BF00875717.Search in Google Scholar

Rutter, E.H., Faulkner, D.R., and Burgess, R. (2012) Structure and geological history of the Carboneras Fault Zone, SE Spain: Part of a stretching transform fault system. Journal of Structural Geology, 45, 68–86. 10.1016/j.jsg.2012.08.009.Search in Google Scholar

Sakuma, H., and Suehara, S. (2015) Interlayer bonding energy of layered minerals: Implication for the relationship with friction coefficient. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2212–2219. 10.1002/2015JB011900.Search in Google Scholar

Sánchez-Navas, A. (1999) Sequential kinetics of a muscovite-out reaction: A natural example. American Mineralogist, 84, 1270–1286.Search in Google Scholar

Sánchez-Navas, A., and Galindo-Zaldívar, J. (1993) Alteration and deformation microstructures of biotite from plagioclase-rich dykes (Ronda Massif, S. Spain). European Journal of Mineralogy, 5, 245–256.Search in Google Scholar

Sánchez-Roa, C., Jiménez-Millán, J., Abad, I., Faulkner, D.R., Nieto, F., and García-Tortosa, F.J. (2016) Fibrous clay mineral authigenesis induced by fluid-rock interaction in the Galera fault zone (Betic Cordillera, SE Spain) and its influence on fault gouge frictional properties. Applied Clay Science, 134, 275–288. 10.1016/j.clay.2016.06.023.Search in Google Scholar

Sánchez-Roa, C., Faulkner, D.R., Boulton, C., Jimenez-Millan, J., and Nieto, F. (2017) How phyllosilicate mineral structure affects fault strength in Mg-rich fault systems. Geophysical Research Letters, 44, 5457–5467. 10.1002/2017GL073055.Search in Google Scholar

Schleicher, A.M., van Der Pluijm, B.A., Solum, J.G., and Warr, L.N. (2006) Origin and significance of clay-coated fractures in mudrock fragments of the SAFOD borehole (Parkfield, California). Geophysical Research Letters, 33, 16. 10.1029/2006GL026505.Search in Google Scholar

Schleicher, A.M., van der Pluijm, B.A., and Warr, L.N. (2012) Chlorite-smectite clay minerals and fault behavior: New evidence from the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) core. Lithosphere, 4, 209–220. 10.1130/L158.1.Search in Google Scholar

Schleicher, A.M., Hofmann, H., and van der Pluijm, B.A. (2013) Constraining clay hydration state and its role in active fault systems. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 14, 1039–1052. 10.1002/ggge.20077.Search in Google Scholar

Scuderi, M.M., and Collettini, C. (2016) The role of fluid pressure in induced vs. triggered seismicity: insights from rock deformation experiments on carbonates. Scientific Reports, 6, April, 24852. 10.1038/srep24852.Search in Google Scholar

Sibson, R.H., White, S.H., and Atkinson, B.K. (1979) Fault rock distribution and structure within the Alpine Fault Zone: a preliminary account. In R.I. Walcott and M.M. Cresswell, Eds., The Origin of the Southern Alps, 18, 55–65. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin.Search in Google Scholar

Suárez, M., and García-Romero, E. (2013) Sepiolite–palygorskite: a continuous polysomatic series. Clays and Clay Minerals 61, 461–472.Search in Google Scholar

van der Pluijm, B., Lee, J., and Peacor, D.R. (1988) Analytical electron microscopy and the problem of potassium diffusion. Clays and Clay Minerals, 36, 6, 498–504.Search in Google Scholar

Vázquez, M., Nieto, F., Morata, D., Droguett, B., Carrillo-Rosua, F.J., and Morales, S. (2014) Evolution of clay mineral assemblages in the Tinguiririca geothermal field, Andean Cordillera of central Chile: an XRD and HRTEM-AEM study. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 282, 43–59. 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.05.022.Search in Google Scholar

Veblen, D.R., and Buseck, P.R. (1981) Hydrous pyriboles and sheet silicates in pyroxenes and uralites: intergrowth microstructures and reaction mechanisms. American Mineralogist, 66, 1107–1134.Search in Google Scholar

Whitney, D.L., and Evans, B.W. (2010) Abbreviations for names of rock-forming minerals. American Mineralogist, 95, 185–187.Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2017-09-27
Accepted: 2018-05-25
Published Online: 2018-09-28
Published in Print: 2018-10-25

© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Highlights and Breakthroughs
  2. A closer look at shocked meteorites: Discovery of new high-pressure minerals
  3. In-situ dating of metamorphism in Adirondack anorthosite
  4. A new style of rare metal granite with Nb-rich mica: The Early Cretaceous Huangshan rare-metal granite suite, northeast Jiangxi Province, southeast China
  5. Tectonic controls on Ni and Cu contents of primary mantle-derived magmas for the formation of magmatic sulfide deposits
  6. The high-pressure anisotropic thermoelastic properties of a potential inner core carbon-bearing phase, Fe7C3, by single-crystal X-ray diffraction
  7. Eruption triggering by partial crystallization of mafic enclaves at Chaos Crags, Lassen Volcanic Center, California
  8. Sn-isotope fractionation as a record of hydrothermal redox reactions
  9. Surface energy of fayalite and its effect on Fe-Si-O oxygen buffers and the olivine-spinel transition
  10. Micro- and nano-scale study of deformation induced mineral transformations in Mg-phyllosilicate-rich fault gouges from the Galera Fault Zone (Betic Cordillera, SE Spain)
  11. High-pressure study of dravite tourmaline: Insights into the accommodating nature of the tourmaline structure
  12. Positively oriented trigons on diamonds from the Snap Lake kimberlite dike, Canada: Implications for fluids and kimberlite cooling rates
  13. Comparison of Rietveld-compatible structureless fitting analysis methods for accurate quantification of carbon dioxide fixation in ultramafic mine tailings
  14. Polyphase solid-inclusions formed by interactions between infiltrating fluids and precursor minerals enclosed in garnet of UHP rocks from the Dabie Shan, China
  15. Changes in physical properties of 4C pyrrhotite (Fe7S8) across the 32 K Besnus transition
  16. A rapid and precise quantitative electron probe chemical mapping technique and its application to an ultrahigh-pressure eclogite from the Moldanubian Zone of the Bohemian Massif (Nové Dvory, Czech Republic)
  17. Stracherite, BaCa6(SiO4)2[(PO4)(CO3)]F, the first CO3-bearing intercalated hexagonal antiperovskite from Negev Desert, Israel
  18. Letter
  19. Fe-Ni ideality during core formation on Earth
  20. New Mineral Names
https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2018-6316
Keywords for this article
Fibrous clay minerals; mineral transformations; fault zones; mineralogy of fault rocks; sepiolite; palygorskite; smectite; HR-TEM

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Highlights and Breakthroughs
  2. A closer look at shocked meteorites: Discovery of new high-pressure minerals
  3. In-situ dating of metamorphism in Adirondack anorthosite
  4. A new style of rare metal granite with Nb-rich mica: The Early Cretaceous Huangshan rare-metal granite suite, northeast Jiangxi Province, southeast China
  5. Tectonic controls on Ni and Cu contents of primary mantle-derived magmas for the formation of magmatic sulfide deposits
  6. The high-pressure anisotropic thermoelastic properties of a potential inner core carbon-bearing phase, Fe7C3, by single-crystal X-ray diffraction
  7. Eruption triggering by partial crystallization of mafic enclaves at Chaos Crags, Lassen Volcanic Center, California
  8. Sn-isotope fractionation as a record of hydrothermal redox reactions
  9. Surface energy of fayalite and its effect on Fe-Si-O oxygen buffers and the olivine-spinel transition
  10. Micro- and nano-scale study of deformation induced mineral transformations in Mg-phyllosilicate-rich fault gouges from the Galera Fault Zone (Betic Cordillera, SE Spain)
  11. High-pressure study of dravite tourmaline: Insights into the accommodating nature of the tourmaline structure
  12. Positively oriented trigons on diamonds from the Snap Lake kimberlite dike, Canada: Implications for fluids and kimberlite cooling rates
  13. Comparison of Rietveld-compatible structureless fitting analysis methods for accurate quantification of carbon dioxide fixation in ultramafic mine tailings
  14. Polyphase solid-inclusions formed by interactions between infiltrating fluids and precursor minerals enclosed in garnet of UHP rocks from the Dabie Shan, China
  15. Changes in physical properties of 4C pyrrhotite (Fe7S8) across the 32 K Besnus transition
  16. A rapid and precise quantitative electron probe chemical mapping technique and its application to an ultrahigh-pressure eclogite from the Moldanubian Zone of the Bohemian Massif (Nové Dvory, Czech Republic)
  17. Stracherite, BaCa6(SiO4)2[(PO4)(CO3)]F, the first CO3-bearing intercalated hexagonal antiperovskite from Negev Desert, Israel
  18. Letter
  19. Fe-Ni ideality during core formation on Earth
  20. New Mineral Names
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Winner of the OpenAthens UX Award 2026
Winner of the OpenAthens UX Award 2026
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2026 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 4.3.2026 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.2138/am-2018-6316/html
Scroll to top button