The Process, Drivers and Prospects of Internationalization Development in China’s Higher Vocational Education

1.1 The “Bringing-In” Phase of Internationalization in China’s Higher Vocational Education (1980–1999)

In 1980, China inaugurated the reform and opening-up of its vocational education system, marking the official launch of its first international cooperation project in vocational education. Within the context of national modernization, vocational education was entrusted with the strategic mission of cultivating technical and skilled talent for the “Four Modernizations”. In the early stages of reform and opening-up, China urgently sought to learn advanced Western educational concepts and vocational education experience to enhance the overall quality and competitiveness of its national workforce. Through introducing foreign vocational education teaching materials, sending educators abroad for study, and establishing Sino-foreign cooperative education programs, China gradually established an internationalization model centered on “bringing in”, initially building bridges for vocational education to connect with international standards. This period represented the foundational stage of internationalization in China’s higher vocational education, primarily characterized by enriching domestic vocational education through the introduction of advanced foreign models, standards, curriculum systems, and teaching resources. During this phase, China’s vocational education sector collaborated with international organizations, multinational corporations, and countries with advanced vocational education systems to learn the best global practices, laying the groundwork for subsequent development.

In the early 1980s, China collaborated with Germany to pilot the “dual-system” vocational education model, which served as an important demonstration for reforming China’s vocational education system. In 1983, the first Sino-German higher vocational education institution – the Nanjing Construction Vocational Education Center – was established with support from Germany’s Hanns Seidel Foundation. By 1984, vocational education cooperation projects between the Chinese and German governments had reached 35 in number. The year 1983 saw China establish its first 33 vocational universities, followed by the creation of three five-year higher technical colleges in 1985. During the 1990s, Sino-German higher technical colleges were established in Shanghai, Tianjin, Hangzhou, Shenyang, and Changchun, while China’s first batch of vocational technical normal colleges were founded based on the German dual-system model. Simultaneously, newly-established higher vocational institutions partnered with Australian TAFE colleges to introduce TAFE curriculum modules for vocational education. China also launched collaborative programs with Canada, such as the “Sino-Canadian Post-Secondary Vocational Education Cooperation Project”. These advanced concepts and models accelerated the rapid development of China’s vocational education reform. Learning advanced educational experience from developed countries became a mainstream approach in vocational education, as domestic higher vocational institutions initiated preliminary exchanges and active cooperation with international vocational education organizations. Through introducing high-quality foreign educational resources, China’s vocational education achieved significant progress across multiple key aspects: curriculum design became more aligned with international demands, teaching methodologies were innovated, and management models were developed toward greater scientific efficiency, resulting in substantial overall improvement. Furthermore, international cooperation projects facilitated faculty exchanges, with some teachers receiving overseas training and bringing back advanced teaching concepts and methods, thereby accelerating the internationalization of China’s higher vocational education. These efforts cultivated a cohort of vocational education professionals with global perspectives and accumulated valuable experience for China’s higher vocational education internationalization.

The mid-to-late 1990s marked a transitional period for China’s economy. While economic restructuring unleashed tremendous productivity, it also brought profound changes to the labor market. The government further adjusted the vocational education system, shifting its focus toward developing higher vocational education (Fang et al. 2009). The enactment of the Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republic of China in 1996 ushered in a phase of rapid expansion for higher vocational education. By 1999, the number of independent higher vocational colleges had reached 474, with annual enrollment exceeding 400,000. International collaboration during this period played a pivotal role in accelerating the growth of China’s higher vocational education. The Provisional Regulations on Sino-Foreign Cooperative Education laid the groundwork for such partnerships, and by 1999, 33 higher vocational institutions had joined the Post-Secondary Vocational Education Cooperation Program initiated by the Ministry of Education. These collaborations primarily adopted the “2 + 1” or “3 + 0” models (e.g., domestic study + overseas internships), with a curricular emphasis on industrial fields like mechanical manufacturing and electronics. By introducing advanced foreign models of vocational education, curriculum systems, and practical training methods, these partnerships provided invaluable insights for reforming institutional structures, refining curricula, and innovating teaching approaches – particularly in building industry-education integration. Simultaneously, they cultivated a cohort of technical professionals with global competencies. Though limited in scope and concentrated in developed regions, these early international initiatives established a crucial foundation for broader and deeper cooperation in the years ahead. They also signaled an irreversible trend: China’s vocational education was poised to step onto the world stage.

1.2 The Transition Phase: From “Bringing In” to “Going Global” in Chinese Higher Vocational Education Internationalization (2000–2013)

China’s official accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 marked the full integration of its economy into economic globalization. With rapid economic and social development, higher education entered a phase of mass popularization. During this period, the country accelerated its alignment with international standards, making cross-border educational cooperation a key driver in modernizing higher vocational education. Substantial policy support, increased funding, and enhanced international cooperation mechanisms at both national and local levels provided robust institutional backing for internationalizing higher vocational education. These measures created a favorable external environment for developing globally- oriented vocational education programs.

The year 2003 saw the promulgation of key regulatory documents, including the Regulations on Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Education in Running Schools and its implementation measures, which established the institutional framework and legal safeguards for internationalizing China’s higher vocational education. During this period, international cooperation in vocational education became increasingly diversified. Beyond establishing joint institutions and programs with foreign partners, China began introducing international vocational qualification systems and developing globally recognized professional certification frameworks for technical education. Concurrently, as China accelerated its opening-up, its vocational education system entered a preliminary phase of “going global”. Through partnerships with international organizations and participation in transnational education initiatives, Chinese institutions began exploring new approaches to recruit international students, gradually enhancing the global profile of higher vocational education. Nevertheless, program-based collaborations between Chinese and foreign higher education institutions remained the predominant form of international engagement in vocational education during this stage.

During this period of development, the rapid growth of Sino-foreign cooperative higher vocational education saw its international cooperation expand from developed countries in Europe and America to Asian nations such as the Republic of Korea and Singapore, while program coverage extended from eastern coastal provinces to vocational colleges in central and western regions, with over 100 higher vocational institutions participating in such cooperative programs. These collaborations took various forms, including jointly- established higher education institutions and programs by Chinese and foreign higher education institutions, such as “joint colleges” with independent legal entity status and cooperative programs awarding dual diplomas and degrees (Lin 2011), as well as academic and resource exchange partnerships between Chinese and foreign higher education institutions. These encompassed student exchange programs with mutual credit recognition, short-term academic and cultural exchange programs for teachers and students, and vocational technical training programs, collectively building a Sino-foreign cooperative vocational education platform that promoted international exchanges for teachers and students while broadening global perspectives. While introducing high-quality international educational resources, China’s higher vocational education actively worked through bilateral and multilateral cooperation to develop internationalized curriculum standards, teaching materials, and pedagogical concepts, enabling Chinese higher vocational education to align with international standards and ultimately form an internationalized higher education system with Chinese characteristics in terms of content and form. These diverse cooperative models complemented each other, jointly driving the practice and innovation of internationalization in China’s higher vocational education.

1.3 The “Going Global” Development Stage of China’s Higher Vocational Education Internationalization (2013–Present)

In 2013, guided by the Chinese government’s Belt and Road Initiative, China’s higher vocational education embarked on a new phase of international development with a focus on “going global”. In 2014, the State Council’s Decisions on Accelerating the Development of Modern Vocational Education called for building a world-class modern vocational education system and extending international vocational education cooperation projects to Belt and Road partner countries. The 2016 Guidelines on Expanding Education Opening-Up in the New Era (CPG 2015) proposed encouraging higher vocational institutions to collaborate with enterprises and industry organizations to promote international cooperative education through the “going global” approach. In 2019, the Ministry of Education’s Action Plan for Advancing Education Cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative (ME 2016) emphasized education’s fundamental and pioneering role in Belt and Road cooperation, listing the education initiative among China’s top ten key education development priorities.

The Belt and Road Initiative injected new momentum into China’s opening-up and cross-regional international cooperation. The nation established development goals and key tasks for higher vocational education’s “going global” approach, aiming to strengthen deep integration and exchanges with Belt and Road partner countries in education, talent cultivation, and technical standards. With the comprehensive implementation of the Belt and Road Initiative, cross-border educational practices and cooperation in vocational education gradually took shape and became established. During the period from 2013 to 2020, China’s higher vocational education internationalization models continuously innovated, giving rise to distinctive models such as “Luban Workshops” “Silk Road Institutes” “Joint Colleges” and “Industry Colleges”. These gradually developed into four practical models: enterprise-led, industry association-led, institution-led, and vocational education alliance-based approaches, providing valuable references for the international development of China’s higher vocational education (Jia 2019). These innovative models, each with distinctive features, have collectively propelled the overseas development of China’s higher vocational education. By 2024, over 200 vocational colleges nationwide had established more than 400 educational institutions and programs in collaboration with 70 countries and regions, cultivating a wealth of high-quality skilled talent with international competencies through school-enterprise cooperation (China Education News 2024a).

In promoting the international development of China’s higher vocational education to serve the Belt and Road Initiative, the “school-enterprise collaborative overseas development” model has played a distinctive and crucial role. Chinese higher vocational institutions have addressed the urgent need for localized skilled talent at Chinese overseas enterprises by establishing international vocational education and training collaborations abroad, including setting up vocational schools and training institutions. Chinese overseas enterprises and industry associations have partnered with higher vocational colleges to conduct collaborative international education, advancing the “going global” initiative of China’s higher vocational education. Leveraging the technological and equipment resources of Chinese overseas enterprises, this model delivers employment-oriented vocational technical education and training based on both corporate needs for localized technical talent and international industry technical standards. Through “school-enterprise collaboration and industry-education integration”, it deepens cooperation between higher vocational institutions and Chinese overseas investment projects, jointly promoting the implementation and sustainable development of overseas investments. This creates efficient and organic connections between educational talent chains, technological chains, industrial chains, development chains, and innovation chains. Not only does it enrich the pathways and methods of China’s vocational education internationalization, but it also provides strong support for technical talent cultivation and industrial upgrading in Belt and Road partner countries (Liu 2017). School-enterprise collaborative overseas education represents an innovative model for vocational education’s “going global” under the Belt and Road framework. The construction of this model includes multiple stakeholders jointly planning and establishing schools, deepening industry-education integration, adopting diversified talent cultivation approaches, and building internationally influential educational brands. This model demonstrates strong replicability and scalability, significantly advancing the internationalization of China’s higher vocational education (Zhao et al. 2017).

In summary, the internationalization of China’s higher vocational education has undergone a phased development of “unidirectional learning – bidirectional exploration – active output – systematic guidance”. This evolutionary progression profoundly reflects the inherent logic of the nation’s comprehensive strength enhancement and transformation of its global governance role, providing “Chinese experience” for the modernization of higher vocational education in developing countries.

3.1 Development Opportunities and Challenges for China’s Higher Vocational Education “Going Global”

Internationalization should not only involve the flow of knowledge and culture but also serve as an important means to promote global sustainable development. With the rapid proliferation and widespread application of digital and intelligent technologies, facilitating globalized learning through virtual exchanges, online collaboration, and digital platforms will emerge as a new model of educational internationalization. This model transcends geographical and economic barriers, making international education more inclusive and extensive, thereby becoming a significant and effective approach to fostering internationally competent talent in vocational and technical education (Zong 2024). Against the backdrop of accelerating integration and restructuring of global economies and industrial chains, China’s proposed Belt and Road Initiative will garner increasing support from nations worldwide. The internationalization of higher vocational education not only injects new momentum into enhancing the country’s soft power but also provides solid support for the overseas development of Chinese enterprises, while creating vast opportunities for building a modernized vocational education system (Li 2017).

Since 2020, the internationalization of China’s higher vocational education has entered a new phase emphasizing connotation enhancement and brand building, marking a shift in development philosophy from pure scale expansion to quality and connotation construction. During this stage, the government and relevant departments have moved beyond the rapid-development model and instead focused on creating a high-quality, sustainable international education environment to establish globally influential vocational education brands. For instance, through the representative “Luban Workshop” brand, China’s vocational education has conducted standardized, quality-focused educational promotion overseas, establishing distinctive Chinese characteristics and international competitiveness. In 2020, the Ministry of Education proposed the international development goal of “building Chinese vocational education international brands” in the Vocational Education Quality Improvement Action Plan (2020–2023). In 2022, the first World Vocational and Technical Education Development Conference was held in Tianjin, releasing the Tianjin Initiative to promote global vocational education cooperation. In 2023, the Ministry of Education launched the “Vocational Education International Cooperation Special Project” to support the high-quality development of 100 Luban Workshops. By 2024, vocational institutions across 27 Chinese provinces had collaboratively established more than 400 overseas educational programs and institutions with partners in 70 countries and regions, giving rise to distinctive international education brands focusing on technical skills training, such as the Luban Workshops (named after the ancient Chinese master), Chinese Language Workshops (combining language and vocational education), Ban Mo Academies (named after ancient Chinese craftsmen masters), Modern Craftsmen Institutes, Silk Road Institutes, and Dayu Institutes (named after the ancient Chinese water conservancy master). These initiatives have collectively cultivated nearly 10,000 graduates through degree programs while delivering vocational skills training to over 31,000 participants worldwide (Peng 2024), demonstrating China’s growing influence in global vocational education through both academic credentialing and practical skills development.

Currently, the internationalization of China’s higher vocational education has entered a crucial new stage. The transformation from scale expansion to connotation construction in China’s higher vocational education internationalization has placed greater emphasis on quality evaluation and assurance systems for international cooperation projects. Since 2020, the previous model focusing solely on scale expansion has gradually shifted to strongly emphasize the importance of connotation building. For example, China has introduced rigorous and detailed quality control systems such as the “Luban Workshop Construction Standard 3.0”. This quality control system covers multiple aspects. In terms of faculty selection and development, it requires teachers to possess not only solid professional knowledge but also rich cross-cultural communication experience, enabling them to clearly and vividly impart knowledge to students from different cultural backgrounds and help them truly understand and master the essence of Chinese vocational education. Regarding curriculum design, instead of simply replicating domestic models, it fully incorporates local industrial needs, cultural characteristics, and student circumstances to carefully create a curriculum system that aligns with international educational concepts while maintaining distinct Chinese vocational education characteristics. This has significantly enhanced the influence and competitiveness of China’s higher vocational education internationally (Lyu 2019).

3.2 Development Strategies of China’s Higher Vocational Education “Going Global”

The Guidelines on Building a Strong Educational Country (2024–2035) proposes to refine strategies for educational opening-up, enhance industry-education integration in vocational education, and improve international cooperation mechanisms between schools and enterprises, with particular emphasis on developing signature programs like the Luban Workshops. Consequently, the strategic positioning of internationalizing China’s higher vocational education must first align closely with national initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative, focusing on cultivating globally competent technical talent that meets the overseas development needs of Chinese enterprises, thereby facilitating the “going global” of Chinese businesses and products. Second, through expanding and deepening international exchanges and cooperation, China aims to assimilate advanced global vocational education concepts and resources to comprehensively elevate the quality and teaching standards of its vocational education system. This effort seeks to establish internationally competitive vocational education brands and strengthen China’s influence and voice in global vocational education discourse. Third, the internationalization of higher vocational education serves as a vital platform for promoting cultural exchanges between China and other nations. Educational interactions foster mutual understanding and friendship among peoples across different countries and regions. Guided by the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind, China is committed to advancing high-quality international cooperation in vocational education worldwide, promoting equitable and collaborative development of vocational education across nations.

Furthermore, the development positioning of China’s higher vocational education’s “going global” initiative can be conceptually defined through theoretical and practical frameworks of internationalization in higher education. China’s higher vocational education’s “going global” represents both a historical mission and a pragmatic choice for China’s higher vocational education in the new era, forming an operational system for internationalization under the Belt and Road Initiative. Consequently, the theory and practice of China’s higher vocational education’s international development must be constructed within the theoretical framework of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and defined according to the distinctive discourse system of a community with a shared future for mankind. Openness reflects the demands of our times, while cooperation meets the needs of development. Promoting high-standard opening-up in higher vocational education to provide strong support for building China into a leading education nation constitutes the strategic objective and developmental orientation of internationalization. This will be achieved through deepening institutional and mechanism innovations in the international development of higher vocational education to ensure sustainable progress.

In summary, the development positioning of China’s higher vocational education internationalization is multidimensional and far-reaching. It aims to advance national development, elevate international standing, foster cultural exchange, and cultivate talent through educational globalization, while simultaneously playing an active role in global education governance.

3.3 Development Pathways and Institutional Innovations for China’s Higher Vocational Education “Going Global”

In 2021, the Guidelines on Promoting the High-Quality Development of Modern Vocational Education (CPG 2021) emphasized that higher vocational education should “support international industrial capacity cooperation and facilitate vocational institutions’ overseas development alongside Chinese enterprises”. This innovative “collective global development” model, which integrates industry and education through school-enterprise collaboration, represents a novel approach to internationalizing China’s higher vocational education. The active participation of Chinese enterprises in this model significantly strengthens the connection between vocational education and employment while enhancing the practical applicability of skills training. Importantly, this approach directly addresses the actual needs of developing countries seeking to modernize their vocational education systems.

First, the “going global” initiative of higher vocational education must evolve from “supporting industrial capacity cooperation” to “supplying global public goods”. This shift in the internationalization objectives of higher vocational education signifies its transformation from a traditional supporting role – serving domestic industrial collaboration – into a pivotal force delivering public goods to the world. Previously, the “going global” of higher vocational education was largely positioned as a “tool kit” supporting the overseas development of Chinese enterprises. Now, it is progressively becoming a “catalyst” for advancing global sustainable development and fostering international exchange and cooperation.

Under this developmental trend, the “going global” initiative of higher vocational education must not only focus on cultivating internationally competent skilled talent, but also commit to aligning these skills with global public needs, such as environmental protection, poverty reduction, and public health. Through in-depth collaboration with international organizations, foreign governments, and educational institutions, China is progressively establishing a global educational service network designed to provide high-quality, affordable vocational training to learners worldwide, addressing urgent socioeconomic development needs across nations. Furthermore, the “going global” of higher vocational education should actively promote the “Chinese Approach” and “Chinese Model” while encouraging localized innovation in vocational education to adapt to the specific conditions of different countries and regions. This flexible export model not only enhances the international competitiveness of Chinese vocational education but also offers valuable references for the diversified development of global vocational education.

Second, the “going global” of higher vocational education should establish a flexible export model featuring “Chinese Standards + Localized Adaptation” with distinctive Chinese characteristics. Within this model, Chinese vocational education not only exports advanced educational concepts, teaching methodologies, and curriculum systems, but more importantly emphasizes deep integration with local educational resources and cultural traditions. Through establishing overseas branch campuses, jointly building training bases, and developing collaborative education programs, Chinese vocational education institutions cooperate with local educational organizations to create vocational education curricula tailored to regional needs. This ensures the educational content adheres to international standards while remaining closely aligned with local realities.

On one hand, it is essential to deepen international cooperation in higher vocational education, develop the competitive advantages of China’s vocational education brand, and actively participate in formulating international vocational education standards. This will enhance China’s influence and voice in global vocational education. For instance, the BRICS Vocational Education Alliance Charter, proactively promoted by the Chinese government, has significantly advanced mutual recognition of vocational education standards and institutional safeguards across nations. China has also established cross-regional cooperation mechanisms such as the Southeast Asia Vocational Education Alliance and the China–Africa Vocational Education Cooperation Alliance, fostering an open and collaborative international ecosystem. Additionally, China actively engages with global vocational education organizations like the World Vocational Education Alliance, strengthening exchanges and cooperation with international counterparts to jointly promote the prosperity of vocational education worldwide.

On the other hand, through initiatives such as joint international institutions, faculty training programs, and curriculum sharing, China is facilitating the global dissemination of its vocational education philosophies, standards, and resources, achieving deeper integration with international education systems. Simultaneously, efforts to recruit and train international students while expanding their employment opportunities demonstrate China’s contribution to building a community with a shared future for mankind. Chinese vocational institutions are establishing overseas campuses, promoting international brands like the Luban Workshops, and implementing vocational education standards abroad – creating a two-way exchange of expertise and experience (Lyu, Zhao, and Zhang 2023).

Simultaneously, Chinese vocational education actively promotes localized innovation, encouraging both faculty and students to conduct scientific research and technological innovation based on local socioeconomic development characteristics. Such innovation not only enhances the practicality and relevance of vocational education, but also injects new vitality into local socioeconomic development. By developing this flexible export model of “Chinese Standards + Localized Innovation”, Chinese vocational education is gradually establishing its brand image globally, making positive contributions to promoting the diversification and sustainable development of worldwide vocational education.

Third, the “going global” of higher vocational education must strengthen the collaborative mechanism between vocational education and international Chinese language education. Within the broader context of global vocational education cooperation, reinforcing the synergistic mechanism between vocational education and international Chinese language education has become particularly crucial. This initiative aims to integrate these two educational resources, thereby enhancing the internationalization level of vocational education while improving the practicality of international Chinese language education, ultimately cultivating interdisciplinary talent with a global vision and cross-cultural communication skills.

The innovative “Chinese + Vocational Skills” model developed by Confucius Institutes integrates Chinese language acquisition with professional skills training to cultivate interdisciplinary talent with dual competencies in linguistics and technical expertise. As of 2024, the global Confucius Institute network had surpassed 600 institutions, having educated over 3 million Chinese language learners worldwide, with Belt and Road partner countries accounting for 35 % of participants – establishing these institutes as crucial platforms for intercultural exchange. Practical implementations demonstrate the model’s effectiveness: in Kenya, Egypt, and South Africa, the “Medical Chinese +” program has trained professionals serving as vital bridges in China–Africa healthcare cooperation, while Southeast Asia’s “Chinese + E-commerce” courses have contributed to a 19 % increase in regional trade volumes. The recently-released Confucius Institute Development Plan (2025–2030) outlines a comprehensive plan to further develop this integrated educational model through digital transformation and pedagogical innovation (New Consumer Daily 2025).

On one hand, vocational education can provide international Chinese language education with abundant practical platforms and cultural immersion opportunities. Through organizing students’ participation in vocational skill training programs, internships, and practical training activities, students of international Chinese language education can gain a deeper understanding of Chinese vocational skills and cultural traditions, thereby strengthening their perception and comprehension of Chinese culture. Meanwhile, these practical activities significantly benefit students’ language application abilities and cross-cultural communication skills, laying a solid foundation for their future career development. On the other hand, international Chinese language education can provide linguistic and cultural support for vocational education. By strengthening language instruction and cultural dissemination, it helps vocational education students better master the Chinese language and understand Chinese culture, enhancing their international competitiveness. Furthermore, international Chinese language education can serve as a platform for cross-cultural exchanges, facilitating international communication and cooperation among students and promoting the internationalization process of vocational education.

The internationalization of higher vocational education with Chinese characteristics has undergone a transformative journey from “bringing in” to “going global”, achieving continuous improvement through this dual process. Through reforming and innovating its international cooperation mechanisms, China has developed a modern vocational education system imbued with distinctive Chinese features. Within the framework of the Belt and Road Initiative, China’s higher vocational education has engaged in mutually beneficial international cooperation and exchanges, offering replicable Chinese wisdom and experience to countries worldwide. As the Belt and Road Initiative advances, China’s higher vocational education is poised to play an increasingly significant role on the global stage, contributing more Chinese solutions and strengths to worldwide vocational education development.