Adventures on two wheels – Comparative study of motorcycle adventure tourists in Germany, Austria and Switzerland

1 Introduction

More and more people in western industrialised countries want to escape from everyday life and experience the unusual in nature – the Covid 19 pandemic has strengthened the trend of outdoor sports and adventure tourism, and the tourism industry is increasingly adapting to the growing demand. In western industrialised countries, the use of motorbikes has changed from a means of transport to a leisure device and has thus also become a focus of regions and travel companies (Cater, 2017, p. 180).

Tour operators specialised in motorbike tours, such as Edelweiss Bike Travel Reisegesellschaft m.b.H., Motorrad action Team, Moto Discovery, AdMo (Adventure Motorcycle) Tours or RawHyde Adventures, for example, use the two terms holiday and adventure for their marketing (Groß & Stengel, 2010, p. 210 ff.). Motorbike manufacturers also add the word adventure to the type designation of selected models, which are mostly large touring enduros (dual sports). The best known of these are the GS models from BMW, whose top model bears this additional designation (BMW AG, 2022), as well as the models from KTM. The Austrian motorbike manufacturer identifies its travel bikes almost exclusively as adventure models in contrast to the sporty road models (Sports Tourer, naked bikes) with the designation Duke (KTM Sportmotorcycle GmbH, 2022a). Other suppliers, such as Honda, advertise their adventure models as follows: “Dusty gravel roads. Winding mountain roads. Long, remote highways. Or maybe just a short trip through town. However you want to spend your time, a Honda Adventure motorbike is the perfect companion.” (Honda, 2022) This customer approach clearly shows that the adventure character of motorcycling is an important part of the advertising message. Generally, these models have often a larger tank, more ground clearance, a 19-inch or better a 21-inch front wheel for more mobility off the road^[1].

In addition, there are other examples that suggest the relation between motorbike travel and adventure. For example, there are various magazines as well as websites and blogs that combine motorcycling and adventure and contain travel reports off-road (e. g. the magazines “Motorrad Abenteuer”, “Adventure Motorcycle Magazine”/”ADVMoto Magazine” or the websites https://motorrad-adventure.de/ or https://www.adventurebikerider.com/).

In academic literature, there are only a few contributions that deal with motorbike travel in principle, which indicates a lack of research that considers the experiential nature of motorcycling in greater depth. However, there are works on self-realisation (Frash and Blose 2019), happiness (Kruger & Venter, 2020), emotions (Scuttari, 2019) or flow (Frash et al., 2018). Moreover, there is hardly any scientific classification of motorbike travel in adventure tourism.

Based on these considerations, this paper aims to show the relation between adventure tourism and motorbike holidays by means of an empirical study. On the one hand, it is investigated whether not only the suppliers but also the customers see a connection between motorbike holidays and adventure travel. On the other hand, for the first time, a characterisation of motorised travellers with an adventure character is carried out.

For this purpose, the following questions are examined:

• Do the aspects associated with a motorbike trip support the proximity to adventure tourism?

• Does the agreement that motorcycle trips are a form of adventure tourism correlate with the fact how sporty the own motorcycle is?

• What personality traits characterize the target group of the motorcycling adventure tourist?

2 Definitions and state of the art

The academic discourse on adventure tourism draws from a variety of disciplines and fields (Rantala et al., 2018). Contributions range from adventure tourism in specific areas, regions and cities, to risk, safety and accident issues, conflicts of use, different activities (e. g. mountain biking, canoeing, climbing), economics, ecology, sociology, reasons and motives for practising, and other psychological issues (e. g. fear, well-being, behaviour), management topics, target groups (e. g. young adults, women, families and the elderly), up to educational, philosophical, ethical, medical topics and the definition and classification of adventure travellers. So far, adventure tourism is not an analytical concept, but much more a category explored by researchers from different disciplines (Rantala et al., 2018). The term adventure tourism is used as an umbrella term, both in the tourism industry and in tourism science (Rantala et al. 2018; Gross & Sand, 2019). The range of activities considered as adventure tourism does range: “from a walk in nature to a flight in space.” (Swarbrooke et al., 2003, p. 4) Across definitions, adventure tourism is a combination of travel, sports and outdoor activities (Janowski et al., 2021; Sand & Gross, 2019). Adventure tourism predominantly involves physical activities that, to some extent, come with an inherent risk, uncertainty and danger (Pomfret & Bramwell 2016). However, adventure does not always have to involve extreme risk (potential), as is often assumed. Rather, it is about a challenge that has to be mastered in nature (sometimes also in the confrontation with nature) (Gross & Sand, 2019).

The Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA, 2015), the umbrella organization of worldwide adventure tourism, names three significant elements of adventure tourism:

• Physical activity,

• Cultural exchange and

• interaction with nature.

In summary, it can be stated that an evolution of definitions can be observed. Namely, from predominantly physical aspects, such as wilderness and physical activity, to increasingly psychological-centred definitions that include elements such as excitement and fear (Cheng et al., 2018). Adventure tourism either includes outdoor activities as the focus of a tourist trip, such as mountain biking, climbing, canoeing or surfing, or includes holidays with an adventurous character, such as trekking tours or backpacking trips. The activities are an important motive, as is the mastering of challenging situations with a certain amount of risk.

There is a lack of research on motorcycle tourism and the few existing studies are often limited to specific destinations and groups (Ramoa et al., 2021; Gronau & Große Hokamp, 2022 – in this issue). Motorcycle tourism is a special form of drive tourism with links to motor-based tourism and also adventure tourism (Cater, 2017) as well as ecotourism (Ramoa et al., 2021). The “term drive tourism is used to describe travel by any form of mechanically powered, passenger-carrying road transport, with the exclusion of coaches and bicycles.” (Prideaux & Carson, 2011, p. 3) Sykes and Kelly (2014) show that serious leisure and experiences during a tour are important to the motorcycle riders and form the basis for a subculture of consumption in this target group.

Scol (2016) states that operators often include adventures in their packaged motorcycle holidays. “Sports concepts, exploits, challenge or adventure permeate motorcycle tourism.” (Scol, 2016, p. 54) While Blackman and Haworth (2013) agree that motorcycle tourism can be considered as a form of adventure tourism they determine that it is not marketed as such and has seen little attention in adventure tourism research.

Increasingly, motorcycle travel is focusing on the combination of vacation and adventure. For example, the Motorrad Action Team advertises its off-road trips with adventure elements, but at the same time tries to convey safety.^[2] Also with (guided) long-distance journeys, the adventure character is stressed (Motorpresse, 2022b).

Yet adventure tourism and motorcycle tourism both include, to some amount, a perceived risk, although operators try to reduce subjective risk to a minimum (Cater, 2017). According to Blackman and Haworth (2013) “the extent to which moped riding satisfies adventure tourism goals will vary among participants, but the activity does not appear altogether out of place in an adventure tourism framework.” (p. 587) Cater (2017) considers motorcyclists as adventure seekers as natural landscapes play an important role and the activity involves physical and mental challenges.^[3] In her study, Scuttari (2019) was able to work out that emotions play an important role during motorcycle riding. The natural environment was found to be an important motive for motorcycle tourist, as are the local culture and the excitement of the trip (Frash et al., 2018; Ramoa et al., 2021). This correlates with important elements of adventure travel and represents the three key elements of ATTA’s definition of adventure travel (ATTA, 2015). Motorcycle travel is often about the journey and the opportunity to see places, meet people and be on the road. These elements are considered in the following research. Ramoa, Pires and Anana (2021) identified important motives of motorcycle touring tourists based on the framework of adventure tourism and ecotourism among 428 Brazilian and Portuguese motorcycle tourists. Among the 14 motivations for adventure tourism developed from Buckley (2012), they found contact with the natural environment (79 %), rush (72.9 %), friendship (60 %) and fulfilment (overcoming challenges to reach difficult goals – 50.7 %) to be the most important motives. The high importance of scenic routes for motorcycle touring (90.5 %) was also shown in the study by Scherhag, Schröder and Frash (2018, p. 255), as well as the challenge of riding itself. Being with like-minded people and making new contacts is an important factor in motorcycle trips (Frash et al., 2018).

The use of motorbikes in tourism ranges from excursions on the “home route” to multi-day trips (short trips/holidays), the latter also as organised bike tours (group trips). On the one hand, a motorbike as a leisure vehicle is used to pursue the hobby of motorcycling, for example to visit motorcycle-specific events, such as motorbike sporting events or motorbike meetings on various topics, as well as active participation in motorbike sporting events. Furthermore, there are motor sport museums that play a touristic role (Walker, 2011, p. 146 ff.), e. g. KTM Motohall (KTM Sportmotorcycle GmbH, 2022b) in Mattighofen (Austria), the manufacturing place of KTM Motorcycles. On the other hand, it is widely agreed that motorbike tourism as a specific form belongs to drive tourism (Frash et al., 2018), despite the fact that this market segment is largely considered a niche market/special interest market (Scherhag, Schröder & Frash 2018). Sykes and Kelly (2016) studied the interrelationship between rural tourism and motorcycle tourism and were able to show that, the motorcycle tourist has an above-average income (and spending behaviour) and therefore it can be an opportunity for DMO’s to offer specific motorcycle packages.

Motorbike tourism differs from the classic tourism definitions (e. g. WTO 1994^[4]) only in the fact that the main purpose of the trip is motorcycling (the way is the goal). In accordance with the three constituent characteristics of tourism (temporary change of place, stay outside home, motives for change of place – Freyer, 2015, p. 3), motorcycle tourism can be defined as follows:

Motorbike tourism is a special interest form of tourism in which mobility by motorbike is the key element of the trip. This mobility should take place in scenic regions on winding roads (scenic routes) with little traffic, and often on unknown routes. Motorbike tourists mainly travel in groups as the exchange with like-minded people constitutes an important element of the trip.

There are different ways of organising motorbike trips. On the one hand, they are put together individually by the travellers themselves, even if they travel with several motorbikes. In addition, more than 300 specialised tour operators^[5] in German-speaking countries offer motorbike tours to specific regions and for specific groups of customers, within Europe, but also worldwide. These can be offers for groups or individual travellers, both with a guide or as a GPS tour, with their own motorbike or a rental vehicle. On the other hand, motorbike dealers and motorbike clubs also organise guided trips and group tours, mostly for their customers.

3 Methodological principles and own methodology of the online survey

In the following, the methodological principles of the online survey will be presented first, followed by selected results of this survey.

4 Results

In the open-ended question about the terms associated with motorcycle tourism, it is noticeable that, in addition to “freedom” (59.7 %), the terms “adventure” (12.7 %) and “experience” (30.5 %) as well as “group experience with like-minded people” (11.8 %) were mentioned most frequently. If a differentiated consideration is made according to countries, smaller deviations become apparent: with regard to the term “freedom”, the number of mentions of the Germans corresponds to the average (59.5 %), while the Austrian test persons mentioned the term somewhat less (57.3 %), the Swiss test persons somewhat more frequently (62.9 %). The terms “experience” and “adventure” were mentioned more frequently by the German subjects than by the respondents in the other two countries. Likewise, the number of mentions related to “group experience with like-minded people” and “nature experience” were significantly lower among Austrians and Swiss than among Germans (see Table 3).

Looking at the sociodemographic characteristics, two aspects are worth highlighting. The average age of motorcycle travellers in Germany is about 4 years higher than the average age of the resident population (48.5 years, median 50 years – resident population 44.6 years (31^st December 2020) – Statistische Ämter des Bundes und der Länder 2022). In Switzerland (42.1 years, median 41 years – resident population 42.7 years (31^st December 2020) – Bundesamt für Statistik 2021) and in Austria (43.3 years, median 43 years – resident population 43.1 years (01^st January 2021 – Statistik Austria 2022b) no difference can be observed.

In relation to the average monthly net income^[6] (based on 2020), 27.9 % of German and 27.9 % of Austrian motor cyclists earned above average; in Switzerland 24.7 % reported an average monthly net income between 4,001 and 6,000 € per month. In contrast, around 50 % of Swiss motorcyclists reported earning more than 6,000 € per month. As this was to the top category, it is not possible to give a more detailed analysis. This should be noted for future research in Switzerland where the average monthly net income is CHF 7,420^[7] (Bundesamt für Statistik, 2021). In contrast, most of the mentions of the German and Austrian probands were in the 2,001 to 4,000 euro group – the category in which the average monthly net income can also be found: in 2019, this was 3,580 euros in Germany (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2021), and approximately 2,484 euros^[8] in Austria (Statistik Austria, 2021).

4.1 Classification of motorbike tourism as adventure tourism from the perspective of motorcyclists

More than two out of three respondents (67.3 %) agree (completely or somewhat) that motorbike tourism is a form of adventure tourism (see Figure 1). Almost a quarter (23.1 %) agree at least partly. Every tenth respondent (9.6 %) disagrees (rather or do not agree at all).

Figure 1:

Motorcycle tourism as a form of adventure tourism

Source: own survey (n = 1,564).

If the gender of the test persons is differentiated, there are only limited differences in the assessment of whether motorcycle tourism is a form of adventure tourism.

Regarding the age categories, younger subjects (up to 20 years, 21–25 years) show significantly higher agreement values (33.3 % respectively 43.1 % – completely agree) than older participants. The 66–75 years age group, for example, only agreed to a lesser extent (13.7 %).

Testing for the predominantly used motorbike category shows a significant difference (see Figure 2)^[9]. The classification of the categories is analogous to common classifications (Motorrad online, 2022), a factual definition with general validity does not exist, an assignment to individual motorbike categories is not always clear. The majority of cruiser riders reject the statement “motorbike tourism is a form of adventure tourism”, and among Touring/Sport Touring riders the proportion rejecting is greater than the proportion agreeing. Riders of Standard/Naked bikes, on the other hand, tend to support the statement that “motorbike tourism is a form of adventure tourism”. Riders of enduros/dual sports express a significantly higher level of agreement. Also somewhat surprising is the predominant agreement in the category sport bike/super sport. The Chi-square test shows that there is a significant association between the motorbike category and the evaluation of whether motorbike travel is a form of adventure tourism (χ² (16, N = 1.514) = 80,21, p < .001). At the same time, it can be confirmed that the more “sporty” the respondent’s motorcycle, the greater the agreement with “motorcycle trips are adventure trips”.

Figure 2:

Level of agreement “motorbike holiday = adventure holiday” in the context of the motorbike category used

Source: own survey (n = 1,514)

The respondents were able to give up to three reasons for their agreement or disagreement to “motorbike tourism is a form of adventure tourism”. Those who agreed at least partly most often listed getting to know new or unknown places (e. g. tours, discovering new/unknown things, new/unknown countries/regions), freedom, independence and autonomy, spontaneity and flexibility, adventure and outdoor (sports) as well as the increased risk or low safety (e. g. speed, risk, danger) of motorbike tourism as a form of adventure (tourism) as reasons (see Table 4).

According to the frequency of individual reasons within the respective category, it is noticeable that almost one fifth of the respondents (17.5 %) emphasised the freedom of motorcycling as an indication of adventure tourism. Almost one tenth of the respondents justify their agreement with the existing fun factor and the dependence on road and weather conditions for exercising the activity.

In addition, for one tenth of the subjects, riding a motorbike contributes to a better experience with less luggage, which thus differs from driving a car and increases the feeling of adventure. The latter can also be attributed to off-road routes. It is conspicuous that the majority of the answers in the category “Joint activities” refer to the sociability of motorcycling, meeting friends and new people. Here, the social factor can be deduced as assigning motorbike tourism to adventure tourism.

Table 4:

Reasons for motorcycle tourism being a form of adventure tourism (multiple response)

Reasons	in %
Getting to know new places (e. g. tours, discovering new/unknown things, new/unknown countries/regions	25.7
Freedom, independence and autonomy (e. g. freedom, independence of place, being on one’s own)	24.1
Spontaneity and flexibility (e. g. unpredictability/unplannability, spontaneity, flexibility, unplanned/less planned)	21.1
Adventure and outdoor (sports) (e. g. adventure, exciting, varied, action)	17.5
Risk and less safety (e. g. speed, risk, danger)	11.6
Mobility (e. g. (better) experience, off-road, little luggage, different from car)	10.9
Fun and relaxation (e. g. fun, relaxation, enjoyment, passion)	10.6
Dependency on weather and road conditions (e. g. dependency on weather, side roads, traffic)	9.9
Joint activity (e. g. socialising, meeting friends/new people, hobby, conversations (about motorbikes))	8.1
Landscape and nature (e. g. landscape/nature, being exposed to nature)	7.9
Positive associations (e. g. individuality, beautiful impressions, special, cool/super/good/awesome, more possibilities)	6.2
Planned holiday with accommodation (e. g. accommodation, holiday/travel, planned holiday)	5.7
Confrontation with personal challenges (e. g. challenge, boundlessness/exploiting limits, open-mindedness, curiosity, courage)	4.3
Other	2.5

Source: own survey (number of answers n= 2,349 with number of respondents n = 1,414).

In addition to the individual evaluation of whether motorbike travel is a form of adventure tourism, statements on the relation between motorbike travel and adventure aspects were examined. The results are shown in Table 4; the smaller the value in the table, the greater the degree of agreement. The greatest degree of agreement, however, is found in statements that are not directly associated with the adventure character of a motorbike trip: For example, people stop when they notice something interesting during the ride (mean = 1.86; n = 962). Beautiful landscapes were also important during the day trips (mean value = 1.63; n = 962). However, both aspects fit into the definition of adventure tourism – interaction with nature – as both driving in attractive landscapes (which in turn bring variety) and “enjoying” the landscape during a stop are thematised. Interaction with nature and appreciation of beauty by motorcycling adventure tourists is also confirmed by Ramoa et al. (2021) with around 79 % agreement in their study.

Furthermore, winding roads as well as riding on remote but paved roads off the beaten track are preferred or considered the most important aspects of adventure motorbike trips (see Table 5) – both aspects that challenge riding skills more than riding on well-maintained main roads and require a certain fitness factor.

Table 5:

Statements on adventure motorbike tours (mean values)

Statements	Germany	Austria	Switzerland	Total
The more curves and bends the road has, the better.	2.13	2.06	2.14	2.12
If something interesting catches my eye while riding I usually stop.	1.83	1.89	1.95	1.86
I preferred to ride on dirt or gravel roads in remote areas.	3.31	3.40	3.29	3.32
I preferred to ride on remote but paved roads off the beaten track.	2.21	2.12	2.21	2.20
I preferred to ride on well signposted routes.	2.43	2.44	2.36	2.42
Beautiful landscapes on the day trips were important to me.	1.63	1.50	1.76	1.63
New destinations every day were secondary for my rides.	3.52	3.46	4.79	3.70

Source: own survey (1 = completely agree, 2 = somewhat agree, 3 = partly, 4 = rather disagree, 5 = do not agree at all; n = 962).

Riding on unpaved roads or gravel roads in remote regions, on the other hand, with a mean value of 3.32, is only conditionally regarded as an essential characteristic of adventure trips by motorbike. Since unpaved roads often require appropriate equipment, this attitude is understandable, also because the proportion of enduro/dual sport riders who have undertaken a motorbike trip with an adventure character in the last three years is only just under 19 % – which means that the majority of the subjects are on the road with road motorbikes and has little interest in unpaved roads.

The group experience is an important aspect of a motorbike trip with adventure character (Figure 3). Only 15.1 % of the participants travelled alone. This percentage is slightly higher than the average of German travellers, around 12 % travelled alone in 2020 (FUR 2021, p. 58).^[10] The remaining respondents experienced their last motorbike trip with adventure character in a larger group. More than half (52.5 %) stated that they travelled together with friends. In addition, almost four out of ten respondents (37.7 %) (also) travelled with their partner. The share of organised travel groups, tour operators and motorbike clubs are relatively low.

Figure 3:

Travel companion on the last motorbike tour with adventure character (multiple response)

Source: own survey (n = 962).

It can be concluded that the participants of a motorbike trip with an adventure character usually know each other. Being together with like-minded people is an important component of the holiday.

There are slight differences in the size of the travel group (number of motorcycles): While both Swiss and Austrians tend to travel in smaller groups of two or three motorbikes, German motorcycle travellers ride in somewhat larger groups (see Figure 4). The average group size was 3.81 motorcycles (median 3) across all respondents, in Germany the motorcycle travel group was slightly larger with an average of 3.96 motorcycles (median 3.0), while the average size of the travel group of German travellers for the holiday trip in 2020 was 2.8 persons (FUR 2021, p. 58). In Austria, the travel group is a little bit smaller with an average of 3.45 (median 2.5), as it is in Switzerland with 3.38 motorcycles (media 2.0)^[11].

These results correspond with the naming of the unaided expression “group experience with like-minded people,” which was named significantly more frequently by the German subjects than by Austrians and Swiss (see Table 3).

Figure 4:

Group size on the last motorcycle tour with adventure character^[12]

Source: own survey (n = 962; Germany n = 690, Austria n = 132, Switzerland n = 140).

4.2 Motorcycle travel and personality traits

Participants of adventure motorbike trips report that the trip changed their lifestyle. About two-thirds indicate that they have spent more time in nature/outdoors after the trip (68.2 %) and/or that their interest in food and cuisine (63.3 %) has been awakened. While the Austrian respondents have spent more time in nature/outdoors with above-average frequency (74.2 %), changes in interest in food and cuisine are reported with below-average frequency – as is the case with the Swiss respondents. Furthermore, the respondents report increased attitudes towards cultures and places (53.0 %) as well as an interest in healthy lifestyle (50.1 %) (see Table 6).

For the less frequently reported lifestyle changes, differences can be identified between the respondents from the three countries, especially when it comes to donations to a charity or a good cause (German respondents 28.0 % and Austrian respondents 18.6 %) and the start of a voluntary commitment (German respondents 19.4 % and Austrian respondents 10.3 %).

Table 6:

Lifestyle changes after motorcycle tours with adventure character (multiple response)

Lifestyle changes	Germany	Austria	Switzerland	Total
More time spent in nature/outdoors	67.9 %	74.2 %	63.8 %	68.2 %
Interest in food and cuisine	64.7 %	61.9 %	57.4 %	63.3 %
Changed attitude towards cultures/places	52.4 %	50.5 %	58.5 %	53.0 %
Interest in healthy lifestyle	50.8 %	45.4 %	51.1 %	50.1 %
Start of a more sustainable lifestyle	35.9 %	25.8 %	36.2 %	34.6 %
Start of a new leisure activity at home	27.8 %	21.6 %	23.4 %	26.3 %
Donated money to charity or good cause	28.0 %	18.6 %	22.3 %	26.0 %
Learned a new language	24.6 %	26.8 %	31.9 %	25.9 %
Started volunteering	19.4 %	10.3 %	12.8 %	17.3 %
Other	6.4 %	5.2 %	3.2 %	5.8 %

Source: own survey (n = 723 (a total of 2,679 answers); Germany: n = 532 (2,010 answers), Austria: n = 97 (330 answers), Switzerland: n = 94 (339 answers).

The possibility of a relation between lifestyle changes and age was also investigated. It is assumed that lifestyle changes are more likely to be observed in younger people than in older people, as they are more open to new experiences and are establishing their personal lifestyle.

The big five are the five most important characteristics of a person’s personality. It is used to measure essential personality traits and to determine personality aspects that categorise different groups or customers (Groß & Sand, 2022). Regarding the big five personality traits of motorcycle tourist (see Figure 5)^[13], it is noticeable that extroverted character traits predominate among and that they tend to be talkative and outgoing and feel comfortable in groups. Extroversion is a predictor for the practice of adventure tourism and German motorbike travellers consider themselves even more extrovert (M = 4.1, SD = 2.1) than German adventure travellers (M = 4.7, SD = 2.2) from the study by Gross, Sand & Berger (2023) and than regular motorcycle tourist (M = 4,7, SD = 2.0 no adventure). In contrast, “normal” motorbike travellers are less extrovert. Regarding agreeableness, the picture is mostly balanced. German adventure travellers tend to have slightly higher agreeableness scores (M = 5.3, SD = 2.1) than motorcycle tourists (M = 5.0, SD = 2.1 adventure; M = 5.0, SD = 2.0 no adventure) and are more likely to be interested in other people, reliable and tolerant when others make mistakes. This could be due to the fact that adventure tourists are generally more dependent on their fellow travellers and have to trust them (e. g. rope team or sailing crew), whereas with motorcycling each individual has to control his or her own vehicle and the mutual dependence is therefore lower – even if, for example, the rules for riding in a group have to be observed.^[14] Motorbike travellers show a pronounced neuroticism (M = 5.1, SD = 2.1 adventure; M = 5.2, SD = 2.0 no adventure). Compared to adventure tourists (M = 4.8, SD = 2.1), a higher percentage indicates that they are more sensitive, tense and easily upset. This is also evident regarding conscientiousness. Motorbike travellers are more conscientious (M = 4.2, SD = 2.0 adventure; M = 4.2, SD = 2.0 no adventure) and plan things thoroughly, pay attention to details, are structured and tend not to be flexible. Conscientiousness is slightly higher among motorbike tourists than among German adventure tourists (M = 4.0, SD = 2.1). With regard to openness scores, the picture is more diverse. It is noticeable that adventure motorbike tourists tend to have higher openness values (M = 5.1, SD = 2.2) than normal motorcycle tourists (M = 4.8, SD = 2.0). Yet adventure tourists are even more open to new experiences and the tend to have a strong imagination, enjoy thinking about new ways of doing things yet are less pragmatic.

In general, it can be seen that the personality traits of adventure motorbike travellers are distributed very similarly to those of regular motorcycle travellers. In the aspects that determine whether someone tends to be an adventure tourist, however, there is a clear difference to regular motorbike tourists. This supports the thesis that there are parallels to adventure tourism.

Figure 5:

Comparison of mean values of personality traits of motorcycle tourists and adventure tourists

Source: own survey and Groß & Sand (2022)

5 Discussion

This study addresses several research questions that have not seen previous attention in the literature. Existing studies examine motives of motorcycle travellers (e. g., Cater, 2017; Frash et al., 2018; Sykes & Kelly, 2014), their emotions (Scuttari, 2019), and the requirements for accommodation facilities (e. g., Scherhag, Schröder & Frash, 2018). Generally, the results of such studies are only available for selected markets and countries. More rarely, motorcycle travellers from different countries are compared with each other (e. g., Frash et al., 2018; the contribution of Ertas, Sykes & Cater in this issue). There is also a lack of scientific studies on the certification of motorcycle-friendly hotels/accommodation facilities, which are mainly carried out by the industry or by associations, predominantly to market their own cooperation.

Scientific research on adventure tourism, on the other hand, is much more extensive, but they include several activities. More than 40 activities are mentioned in the classification into soft or hard adventure activities (Groß & Sand, 2019). Motorcycling as well as motorcycle tourism are not included in adventure tourism classifications so far. The participants mention important characteristics of their holidays (such as adventure, risk, getting to know the culture, interaction with nature) that are similar to adventure tourism aspects (Swabrooke et al., 2003; Sand & Gross, 2019). The characteristics presented as well as the self-assessment by the motorcyclists show that motorcycling is predominantly a soft adventure activity. Although getting to know new regions/countries are mentioned as an important feature of motorcycle trips with adventure character (see Table 4: 25.7 %), at the same time the safety aspect is also emphasized (only 11.6 % agreement for “Risk and less safety” – see Table 4). Riding on gravel roads is significantly less desired (mean 3.32) than riding on paved roads (M = 2.20 – see Table 5). Adventure on two wheels is associated with personal and physical challenge, which is also used for marketing adventure tourism products/services. Customers to remember challenges and on the one hand, and a safe and carefree vacation on the other hand.

The examination of the personality traits of adventure tourists and motorcycle travellers (see Figure 5) shows that the means of those who have undertaken adventurous motorcycle tourism show a greater similarity with the means of the personality traits of adventure tourists in terms of extroversion and openness. Both traits are predictors for adventure travel (Gross, Sand & Berger, 2023). As for the means of the other traits the subjects who have undertaken motorcycle holidays with adventurous aspects are similar to those of regular motorcycle tourists.

The research questions posed at the beginning were answered, even if more intensive analysis is required in the future. First, it was examined to what extent the characteristics of motorcycle trip are similar to those of adventure tourism and whether there are similarities. For this purpose, the following characteristics of an adventure trip were considered for motorcycle trips with an adventure character.

• Physical activity: A pronounced physical activity is fulfilled by riding a motorcycle. Especially riding on winding roads requires a certain physical fitness and the competence of the riders to guide a motorcycle intuitively. Especially if about 250–300 KM (about 155–186 Miles) on unfamiliar, winding routes are completed per day, it is necessary that a motorcycle is guided intuitively, and not individual activities must be considered first.

• Cultural exchange: Learning about new, unknown regions and/or cultures is one of the most important aspects of adventure motorcycle tours (see Table 4). This aspect is supported by changes in lifestyle after motorcycle tours with adventure character in dealing with cultures and places, which was noted by about 53 % of the survey total. At 58.5 %, this aspect was even more prominent among the Swiss respondents. The exchange with friends and acquaintances as well as other motorcyclists during the tour is an important part of a motorcycle trip with adventure character (see Table 4). Therefore, the regional providers should create opportunities to enable the exchange of motorcycle travellers among themselves; this can be done with specific events (e. g. biker meetings, test rides in cooperation with motorcycle manufacturers or tour operators) or joint dinners in the accommodation (e. g. barbecue). But also getting to know the visiting regions and their culture and people is important. The discussion about different routes does take place at special types of accommodation among locals and motor cyclists from around the world. Through the exchange with regional tour guides or the hotel owners secret tips to remote places and/or rarely travelled routes can be experienced. Especially for the target group that also likes to ride off-road routes, the contact to the locals is important. The certification as a motorcycle-friendly hotel can support or communicate this competence on the one hand, on the other hand it can facilitate the choice of accommodation for motorcycle travellers.

  Furthermore, a larger percentage of motorcycle travellers stop and take a photo at interesting points on the route, as well as at places with an attractive panorama. Younger riders (just over 50 % of the respondents up to 35 years of age) often publish these photos during the tour and/or share them on social media.

• Interaction with nature: Riding on interesting, less travelled routes is an important component of the motorcycle trip, with spectacular scenery playing an important role. However, the riding itself (the way is the goal) is the most important component for a motorcycle vacation with adventure character. Becoming one with the road, the motorbike and the scenery. Being completely immersed in the natural setting is an important experience. Despite this, an offer for (short) excursions during a day’s stage can certainly meet the motorcyclist’s interest. The scope and, if necessary, special equipment for such excursions should be communicated before the tour, since longer walks in motorcycle clothing are not very comfortable. Providing helmet lockers (e. g. at the Krimmler Waterfalls in Austria) at the parking lots/access points to such natural features may also increase demand by motorcycle travellers. The aspect “nature” is not similarly relevant for the national groups. There is a difference in the evaluation of the experience of nature by the subjects, so this aspect is more important for the Germans than for Austrians and Swiss (see Table 3). All in all interesting landscapes are important for the tour planning and the countryside image will help the motorcyclists’ to make a travel decision.

It was also investigated whether the subjects’ agreement that motorcycle trips are adventure trips would increase the sportier the motorcycle. Since the majority of the subjects do not travel off-road but on roads, the sport bike/super sport bikes were considered the “sportiest category”. In comparison with the other categories of road motorcycles (see Figure 2), this statement can be confirmed. The agreement of the enduro/dual sport riders was at a similar response level. Since the sporting challenge here lies not in fast (and therefore often risky) riding, but in mastering the motorcycle on unpaved terrain, this statement can be confirmed overall.

With regard to the personality traits, it could be shown – as explained in chapter 6 – that adventure tourists and motorcycle travellers who have already conducted a motorcycle trip with adventure character show similar values in terms of extraversion and openness.

6 Conclusion

In conclusion, it is stated that motorcycle tours do have elements that allow them to be classified as a subcategory of adventure tourism. As with other forms of adventure tourism, a distinction can be made here between soft and hard adventure. Soft adventure offers do not require special knowledge or skills and provide the customer with a certain level of security. Hard adventure offers often require intense preparation and detailed planning so that the challenges can be adequately met, and the risk can be controlled. Based on the results motorcycle tourism can be classified as soft adventure activity, when riding remote and adventurous routes.

This study is the first in the German-speaking world to examine the adventure character of motorcycle trips in more detail. It does not only provide detailed information on the needs and motives of motorcycle tourists, it also compares German, Austrian and Suisse motorcycle tourists. In future research, adventure tourism aspects with regard to motorcycle tourism should play a greater role. The use of nature in connection with adventure tourism should also be considered more strongly against the background of the discussion about nature-compatible tourism, which is gaining in importance. While personality aspects are receiving increasing attention in tourism research, these aspects should also be considered with regard to motorcycle travel. A comparison between Germany, Austria and Switzerland is a first step, but in the future, more countries from different cultures should be compared.