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A cross-linguistic analysis of cross-clausal associations: Counterfactual conditionals

  • Jesus Olguin Martinez EMAIL logo and Phillip Rogers
Published/Copyright: November 28, 2024

Abstract

It has been shown that linguistic features of main and dependent clauses in complex sentence constructions may show different degrees of association strength giving rise to a number of cross-clausal associations. While this domain has been explored for the most part in corpus-based studies in individual languages, it has received little attention from a typological perspective. The present study makes inroads into this territory by exploring cross-clausal associations of one complex sentence construction in typological perspective: Counterfactual conditionals (e.g., if you had gone, you would have seen her). In particular, special attention is paid to the interaction of clause-linkage patterns, TAM markers, iconicity of sequence, and ‘but’ clauses in counterfactual conditionals in a sample of 131 languages. By using a hierarchical configural frequency analysis, we identify a number of preferred and dispreferred cross-clausal associations in counterfactual conditionals that we explain from a functional perspective.


Corresponding author: Jesus Olguin Martinez, Illinois State University, Normal, USA, E-mail:

Appendix. Variables taken into account in the present study

Language Clause-linkage Protasis TAM Apodosis TAM ‘But’ clause Iconicity Source
Abau Asyndesis Unmarked Actualized Obligatory Obligatory Lock (2011: 369)
Adang Unspecialized Unmarked Unmarked Obligatory Obligatory Haan (2001: 335)
Aguaruna Unspecialized Actualized Non-actualized Obligatory Obligatory Overall (2017: 507
Alto Perene Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Mihas (2015: 257)
Amuzgo Unspecialized Actualized Actualized Obligatory Obligatory Buck (2015: 275)
Armenian Unspecialized Mixed Mixed Optional Optional Dum-Tragut (2009: 468)
Awtuw Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Feldman (1986: 168)
Ayutla Mixe Specialized Mixed Mixed Optional Optional Romero-Méndez (2008: 241)
Ayutla Mixtec Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Hills (1990: 237–238)
Balantak Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Van den Berg and Busenitz (2012: 240)
Bangime Unspecialized Actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Heath and Hantgan (2018: 465)
Barai Specialized Unmarked Actualized Optional Optional Olson (1975: 503)
Barupu Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Corris (2006: 340)
Baure Asyndesis Non-actualized Actualized Optional Obligatory Danielsen (2007: 418)
Bilua Unspecialized Actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Obata (2003: 227)
Bininj Gun-Wok Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Evans (2003: 657)
Bora Specialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Thiesen and Weber (2012: 372)
Buglere Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Quesada (2012: 166)
Bunoge Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Heath (2014: 322–324)
Central Alaskan Yupik Unspecialized Actualized Mixed Optional Obligatory Miyaoka (2012: 1,401)
Central Morocco Tamazight Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Said Barguigue (pers. comm.)
Chamacoco Specialized Unmarked Unmarked Optional Optional Luca Ciucci (pers. comm.)
Chimariko Specialized Unmarked Actualized Optional Optional Jany (2009: 195)
Chol Asyndesis Non-actualized Actualized Optional Obligatory Vázquez-Álvarez (2011: 414)
Crow Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Graczyk (2007: 357)
Cupeño Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Hill (2005: 72)
Dadibi Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory McDonald (1976: 173)
Daga Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Murane (1974: 259)
Dani Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Bromley (1981: 247)
Dhimal Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Obligatory King (2009: 144)
Duna Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory San Roque (2008: 398)
Emai Asyndesis Mixed Mixed Optional Obligatory Schaefer and Egbokhare (2017: 883)
Epena Pedee Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Harms (1994: 160)
Eton Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Van de Velde (2008: 365)
Finnish Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Sulkala and Karjalainen (1992: 315)
Gaagudju Asyndesis Mixed Mixed Optional Obligatory Harvey (2002: 375)
Garifuna Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Quesada (2017: 199)
Georgian Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Hewitt (1995: 583–586)
Golin Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Evans et al. (2005: 50)
Gooniyandi Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory McGregor (1990: 431–433)
Gumuz Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Ahland (2012: 437–438)
Gurr-goni Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Green (1995: 302)
Hausa Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Jaggar (2001: 347)
Hua Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Haiman (1980: 185)
Huichol Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Gómez (1999: 156–157)
Hungarian Unspecialized Mixed Mixed Optional Optional Kenesei et al. (1998: 51–52)
Hup Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Epps (2008: 609–619)
Ilocano Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Galvez Rubino (1997: 485)
Imonda Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Seiler (1985: 201–202)
Inanwatan Asyndesis Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Obligatory de Vries (2004: 39)
Ingush Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Nichols (2011: 303–305)
Iquito Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Michael (2009: 155–157)
Jalkunan Unspecialized Actualized Actualized Obligatory Obligatory Heath (2017: 312–314)
Jamul Tiipay Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Miller (2001: 251–262)
Kaki Ae Asyndesis Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Clifton (1997: 41–45)
Ket Unspecialized Mixed Mixed Optional Optional Nefedov (2015: 200–201)
Kewa Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Mason-Yarapea (2005: 244–246)
Kharia Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Peterson (2011: 393–395)
Khwarshi Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Khalilova (2009: 412–415)
Kodava Specialized Actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Ebert (1996: 46)
Kokama-Kokamilla Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Vallejos (2016: 637: 639)
Kolyma Yukaghir Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Maslova (2003: 498–503)
Kombio Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Henry (1992: 105–106)
Konso Specialized Unmarked Actualized Optional Optional Oda Orkaydo (2013: 232–234)
Korean Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Chang (1996: 157–158)
Kuku Yalanji Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Patz (2002: 157–159)
Kwaza Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Obligatory van der Voort (2004: 630–631)
Lango Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Noonan (1992: 232–233)
Lowland Chontal Unspecialized Actualized Actualized Obligatory Obligatory O’Connor (2014: 189)
Maba Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Weiss (2009: 363–364)
Ma’di Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Blackings and Fabb (2003: 240–244)
Makasae Specialized Unmarked Unmarked Optional Optional Huber (2008: 113–114)
Malakmalak Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Birk (1976: 123–124)
Malayalam Asyndesis Mixed Mixed Optional Obligatory P. Sree (pers. comm.)
Manambu Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Aikhenvald (2008: 462)
Mapuche Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Smeets (2008: 183–184)
Menya Specialized Unmarked Actualized Optional Optional Whitehead (2004: 121)
Miskito Unspecialized Actualized Actualized Obligatory Obligatory Jose Guzman (pers. comm.)
Mongsen Ao Specialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Coupe (2006: 435–437)
Moseten Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Sakel (2002: 440–441)
Motuna Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Onishi (1994: 458–459)
Movima Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Haude (2006: 531–532)
Murui Huitoto Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Wojtylak (2017: 501–505)
Muylaq’ Aymara Asyndesis Mixed Mixed Optional Obligatory Coler (2014: 641)
Nahuatl Huasteca Specialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Author’s fieldwork
Nakkara Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Eather (1990: 338)
Ndjebbana Asyndesis Non-actualized Unmarked Optional Obligatory Mckay (2000: 312)
Ngandi Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Heath (1978: 124–125)
Ngiti Asyndesis Mixed Mixed Optional Obligatory Kutsch Lojenga (1994: 263)
Paiwan Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Chang (2006: 317–318)
Palula Specialized Mixed Mixed Optional Optional Liljegren (2016: 365–370)
Papantla Totonac Unspecialized Mixed Mixed Optional Optional Author’s fieldwork
Puinave Asyndesis Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Girón (2008: 416–417)
Purepecha Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Chamoreau (2000: 197–198)
Puyuma Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Teng (2008: 171)
Rama Specialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Grinevald (1990: 165)
Rapanui Specialized Actualized Unmarked Optional Optional Kieviet (2017: 568–569)
Rotokas Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Firchow (1974: 41)
Rukai Unspecialized Actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Zeitoun (2007: 529–530)
San Andres Otomi Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Lastra de Suárez (2001: 40)
San Cristobal Zapotec Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Michael Galant (pers. comm.)
Sandawe Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Steeman (2012: 102–103)
Savosavo Specialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Wegener (2008: 180)
Semelai Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Kruspe (2004: 385–386)
Shawi Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Pilar Valenzuela (pers. comm.)
Sheko Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Hellenthal (2010: 361)
Skolt Saami Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Feist (2010: 346–348)
Sochiapan Chinantec Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Foris (2000: 327)
Sulka Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Tharp (1996: 153)
Supyire Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Carlson (1994: 572–576)
Tamashek Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Heath (2005: 456)
Tangsa Specialized Unmarked Actualized Optional Optional Boro (2017: 525)
Tariana Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Aikhenvald (2003: 391–392)
Tiriyó Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Optional Meira (1999: 316)
Tokelau Specialized Unmarked Actualized Optional Optional Sharples (1976: 243–244)
Ts’ixa Specialized Actualized Mixed Optional Optional Fehn (2014: 268–269)
Tundra Nenets Specialized Actualized Actualized Optional Optional Nikolaeva (2014: 372–374)
Udihe Unspecialized Mixed Non-actualized Optional Optional Nikolaeva and Tolskaya (2001: 749–751)
Udmurt Unspecialized Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Optional Winkler (2001: 41)
Ungarinjin Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Rumsey (1982: 154–155)
Urama Specialized Unmarked Non-actualized Obligatory Optional Brown et al. (2016: 155)
Urarina Unspecialized Unmarked Unmarked Optional Optional Olawsky (2006: 255)
Urim Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Hemmilä and Luoma (1987: 237)
Ute Unspecialized Actualized Mixed Optional Obligatory Givón (2011: 367)
Wappo Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Thompson et al. (2006: 158–162)
Waray Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Harvey (1986: 240–241)
Wardaman Unspecialized Mixed Mixed Optional Optional Merlan (1994: 188)
Warihio Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Félix Armendáriz (2005: 286–289)
Yaqui Unspecialized Actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory Dedrick and Casad (1999: 395
Yimas Unspecialized Mixed Mixed Optional Optional Foley (1991: 440–442)
Yuchi Unspecialized Unmarked Non-actualized Obligatory Obligatory Linn (2000: 507)
Yurakaré Asyndesis Non-actualized Non-actualized Optional Obligatory van Gijn (2006: 199–200)

Abbreviations

1

first person

2

second person

3

third person

abs

absolutive

acc

accusative

add

additive

adess

adessive

ana

anaphoric

appl

applicative

art

article

asser

assertive

att

attenuative

aux

auxiliar

cert

certain

cf

counterfactual

compl

completive

cond

conditional

conj

conjunction

cons

consecutive

contig

contiguous

cop

copula

cvb

converb

dat

dative

decl

declarative

ds

different subject

erg

ergative

exist

existential

f

feminine

foc

focus

frust

frustrative

fut

future

gl

goal

hyp

hypothetical

incl

inclusive

intrans

intransitive

inv

inverse

ipfv

imperfective

irr

irrealis

lk

linker

loc

locative

m

masculine

neg

negative

neut

neutral

nmlz

nominalizing

nom

nominative

np

noun phrase

nr

subject nominalizer

obj

object

obl

oblique

perf

perfect

pfv

perfective

pl

plural

poss

possessive

pot

potential

pst

past

real

realis

rec

reciprocal

rel

relativizer

sbj

subject

sg

singular

sim

simultaneity

ss

same subject

sub

subordinator

top

topic

trans

transitive

vs

verbal stem marker

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Published in Print: 2024-11-26

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