Abstract
It has been shown that linguistic features of main and dependent clauses in complex sentence constructions may show different degrees of association strength giving rise to a number of cross-clausal associations. While this domain has been explored for the most part in corpus-based studies in individual languages, it has received little attention from a typological perspective. The present study makes inroads into this territory by exploring cross-clausal associations of one complex sentence construction in typological perspective: Counterfactual conditionals (e.g., if you had gone, you would have seen her). In particular, special attention is paid to the interaction of clause-linkage patterns, TAM markers, iconicity of sequence, and ‘but’ clauses in counterfactual conditionals in a sample of 131 languages. By using a hierarchical configural frequency analysis, we identify a number of preferred and dispreferred cross-clausal associations in counterfactual conditionals that we explain from a functional perspective.
Appendix. Variables taken into account in the present study
Language | Clause-linkage | Protasis TAM | Apodosis TAM | ‘But’ clause | Iconicity | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abau | Asyndesis | Unmarked | Actualized | Obligatory | Obligatory | Lock (2011: 369) |
Adang | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Unmarked | Obligatory | Obligatory | Haan (2001: 335) |
Aguaruna | Unspecialized | Actualized | Non-actualized | Obligatory | Obligatory | Overall (2017: 507 |
Alto Perene | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Mihas (2015: 257) |
Amuzgo | Unspecialized | Actualized | Actualized | Obligatory | Obligatory | Buck (2015: 275) |
Armenian | Unspecialized | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Dum-Tragut (2009: 468) |
Awtuw | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Feldman (1986: 168) |
Ayutla Mixe | Specialized | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Romero-Méndez (2008: 241) |
Ayutla Mixtec | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Hills (1990: 237–238) |
Balantak | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Van den Berg and Busenitz (2012: 240) |
Bangime | Unspecialized | Actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Heath and Hantgan (2018: 465) |
Barai | Specialized | Unmarked | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Olson (1975: 503) |
Barupu | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Corris (2006: 340) |
Baure | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Danielsen (2007: 418) |
Bilua | Unspecialized | Actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Obata (2003: 227) |
Bininj Gun-Wok | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Evans (2003: 657) |
Bora | Specialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Thiesen and Weber (2012: 372) |
Buglere | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Quesada (2012: 166) |
Bunoge | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Heath (2014: 322–324) |
Central Alaskan Yupik | Unspecialized | Actualized | Mixed | Optional | Obligatory | Miyaoka (2012: 1,401) |
Central Morocco Tamazight | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Said Barguigue (pers. comm.) |
Chamacoco | Specialized | Unmarked | Unmarked | Optional | Optional | Luca Ciucci (pers. comm.) |
Chimariko | Specialized | Unmarked | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Jany (2009: 195) |
Chol | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Vázquez-Álvarez (2011: 414) |
Crow | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Graczyk (2007: 357) |
Cupeño | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Hill (2005: 72) |
Dadibi | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | McDonald (1976: 173) |
Daga | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Murane (1974: 259) |
Dani | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Bromley (1981: 247) |
Dhimal | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | King (2009: 144) |
Duna | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | San Roque (2008: 398) |
Emai | Asyndesis | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Obligatory | Schaefer and Egbokhare (2017: 883) |
Epena Pedee | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Harms (1994: 160) |
Eton | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Van de Velde (2008: 365) |
Finnish | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Sulkala and Karjalainen (1992: 315) |
Gaagudju | Asyndesis | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Obligatory | Harvey (2002: 375) |
Garifuna | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Quesada (2017: 199) |
Georgian | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Hewitt (1995: 583–586) |
Golin | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Evans et al. (2005: 50) |
Gooniyandi | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | McGregor (1990: 431–433) |
Gumuz | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Ahland (2012: 437–438) |
Gurr-goni | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Green (1995: 302) |
Hausa | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Jaggar (2001: 347) |
Hua | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Haiman (1980: 185) |
Huichol | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Gómez (1999: 156–157) |
Hungarian | Unspecialized | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Kenesei et al. (1998: 51–52) |
Hup | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Epps (2008: 609–619) |
Ilocano | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Galvez Rubino (1997: 485) |
Imonda | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Seiler (1985: 201–202) |
Inanwatan | Asyndesis | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | de Vries (2004: 39) |
Ingush | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Nichols (2011: 303–305) |
Iquito | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Michael (2009: 155–157) |
Jalkunan | Unspecialized | Actualized | Actualized | Obligatory | Obligatory | Heath (2017: 312–314) |
Jamul Tiipay | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Miller (2001: 251–262) |
Kaki Ae | Asyndesis | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Clifton (1997: 41–45) |
Ket | Unspecialized | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Nefedov (2015: 200–201) |
Kewa | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Mason-Yarapea (2005: 244–246) |
Kharia | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Peterson (2011: 393–395) |
Khwarshi | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Khalilova (2009: 412–415) |
Kodava | Specialized | Actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Ebert (1996: 46) |
Kokama-Kokamilla | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Vallejos (2016: 637: 639) |
Kolyma Yukaghir | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Maslova (2003: 498–503) |
Kombio | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Henry (1992: 105–106) |
Konso | Specialized | Unmarked | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Oda Orkaydo (2013: 232–234) |
Korean | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Chang (1996: 157–158) |
Kuku Yalanji | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Patz (2002: 157–159) |
Kwaza | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | van der Voort (2004: 630–631) |
Lango | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Noonan (1992: 232–233) |
Lowland Chontal | Unspecialized | Actualized | Actualized | Obligatory | Obligatory | O’Connor (2014: 189) |
Maba | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Weiss (2009: 363–364) |
Ma’di | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Blackings and Fabb (2003: 240–244) |
Makasae | Specialized | Unmarked | Unmarked | Optional | Optional | Huber (2008: 113–114) |
Malakmalak | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Birk (1976: 123–124) |
Malayalam | Asyndesis | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Obligatory | P. Sree (pers. comm.) |
Manambu | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Aikhenvald (2008: 462) |
Mapuche | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Smeets (2008: 183–184) |
Menya | Specialized | Unmarked | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Whitehead (2004: 121) |
Miskito | Unspecialized | Actualized | Actualized | Obligatory | Obligatory | Jose Guzman (pers. comm.) |
Mongsen Ao | Specialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Coupe (2006: 435–437) |
Moseten | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Sakel (2002: 440–441) |
Motuna | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Onishi (1994: 458–459) |
Movima | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Haude (2006: 531–532) |
Murui Huitoto | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Wojtylak (2017: 501–505) |
Muylaq’ Aymara | Asyndesis | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Obligatory | Coler (2014: 641) |
Nahuatl Huasteca | Specialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Author’s fieldwork |
Nakkara | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Eather (1990: 338) |
Ndjebbana | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Unmarked | Optional | Obligatory | Mckay (2000: 312) |
Ngandi | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Heath (1978: 124–125) |
Ngiti | Asyndesis | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Obligatory | Kutsch Lojenga (1994: 263) |
Paiwan | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Chang (2006: 317–318) |
Palula | Specialized | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Liljegren (2016: 365–370) |
Papantla Totonac | Unspecialized | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Author’s fieldwork |
Puinave | Asyndesis | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Girón (2008: 416–417) |
Purepecha | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Chamoreau (2000: 197–198) |
Puyuma | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Teng (2008: 171) |
Rama | Specialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Grinevald (1990: 165) |
Rapanui | Specialized | Actualized | Unmarked | Optional | Optional | Kieviet (2017: 568–569) |
Rotokas | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Firchow (1974: 41) |
Rukai | Unspecialized | Actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Zeitoun (2007: 529–530) |
San Andres Otomi | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Lastra de Suárez (2001: 40) |
San Cristobal Zapotec | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Michael Galant (pers. comm.) |
Sandawe | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Steeman (2012: 102–103) |
Savosavo | Specialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Wegener (2008: 180) |
Semelai | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Kruspe (2004: 385–386) |
Shawi | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Pilar Valenzuela (pers. comm.) |
Sheko | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Hellenthal (2010: 361) |
Skolt Saami | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Feist (2010: 346–348) |
Sochiapan Chinantec | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Foris (2000: 327) |
Sulka | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Tharp (1996: 153) |
Supyire | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Carlson (1994: 572–576) |
Tamashek | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Heath (2005: 456) |
Tangsa | Specialized | Unmarked | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Boro (2017: 525) |
Tariana | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Aikhenvald (2003: 391–392) |
Tiriyó | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Meira (1999: 316) |
Tokelau | Specialized | Unmarked | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Sharples (1976: 243–244) |
Ts’ixa | Specialized | Actualized | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Fehn (2014: 268–269) |
Tundra Nenets | Specialized | Actualized | Actualized | Optional | Optional | Nikolaeva (2014: 372–374) |
Udihe | Unspecialized | Mixed | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Nikolaeva and Tolskaya (2001: 749–751) |
Udmurt | Unspecialized | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Optional | Winkler (2001: 41) |
Ungarinjin | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Rumsey (1982: 154–155) |
Urama | Specialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Obligatory | Optional | Brown et al. (2016: 155) |
Urarina | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Unmarked | Optional | Optional | Olawsky (2006: 255) |
Urim | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Hemmilä and Luoma (1987: 237) |
Ute | Unspecialized | Actualized | Mixed | Optional | Obligatory | Givón (2011: 367) |
Wappo | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Thompson et al. (2006: 158–162) |
Waray | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Harvey (1986: 240–241) |
Wardaman | Unspecialized | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Merlan (1994: 188) |
Warihio | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Félix Armendáriz (2005: 286–289) |
Yaqui | Unspecialized | Actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | Dedrick and Casad (1999: 395 |
Yimas | Unspecialized | Mixed | Mixed | Optional | Optional | Foley (1991: 440–442) |
Yuchi | Unspecialized | Unmarked | Non-actualized | Obligatory | Obligatory | Linn (2000: 507) |
Yurakaré | Asyndesis | Non-actualized | Non-actualized | Optional | Obligatory | van Gijn (2006: 199–200) |
Abbreviations
- 1
-
first person
- 2
-
second person
- 3
-
third person
- abs
-
absolutive
- acc
-
accusative
- add
-
additive
- adess
-
adessive
- ana
-
anaphoric
- appl
-
applicative
- art
-
article
- asser
-
assertive
- att
-
attenuative
- aux
-
auxiliar
- cert
-
certain
- cf
-
counterfactual
- compl
-
completive
- cond
-
conditional
- conj
-
conjunction
- cons
-
consecutive
- contig
-
contiguous
- cop
-
copula
- cvb
-
converb
- dat
-
dative
- decl
-
declarative
- ds
-
different subject
- erg
-
ergative
- exist
-
existential
- f
-
feminine
- foc
-
focus
- frust
-
frustrative
- fut
-
future
- gl
-
goal
- hyp
-
hypothetical
- incl
-
inclusive
- intrans
-
intransitive
- inv
-
inverse
- ipfv
-
imperfective
- irr
-
irrealis
- lk
-
linker
- loc
-
locative
- m
-
masculine
- neg
-
negative
- neut
-
neutral
- nmlz
-
nominalizing
- nom
-
nominative
- np
-
noun phrase
- nr
-
subject nominalizer
- obj
-
object
- obl
-
oblique
- perf
-
perfect
- pfv
-
perfective
- pl
-
plural
- poss
-
possessive
- pot
-
potential
- pst
-
past
- real
-
realis
- rec
-
reciprocal
- rel
-
relativizer
- sbj
-
subject
- sg
-
singular
- sim
-
simultaneity
- ss
-
same subject
- sub
-
subordinator
- top
-
topic
- trans
-
transitive
- vs
-
verbal stem marker
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Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Grammatical name marking in Chamorro
- A cross-linguistic analysis of cross-clausal associations: Counterfactual conditionals
- Non-core case marking in Batanic languages
- Psych construction types in Arabic as root-based in templatic morphosyntax
- Comment
- A note on Jaradat, A. (2024) From nominal source to demonstrative: a case of grammaticalization in Standard Arabic
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Grammatical name marking in Chamorro
- A cross-linguistic analysis of cross-clausal associations: Counterfactual conditionals
- Non-core case marking in Batanic languages
- Psych construction types in Arabic as root-based in templatic morphosyntax
- Comment
- A note on Jaradat, A. (2024) From nominal source to demonstrative: a case of grammaticalization in Standard Arabic