‘Reflexemes’ – a first cross-linguistic insight into how and why reflexive constructions encode emotions
-
Alex Stephenson
,
Maïa Ponsonnet
and
Marc Allassonnière-Tang
Abstract
This article presents the first study on reflexive expressions having lexicalized an emotional meaning, as in the English example enjoy oneself. Such lexicalized forms, which we call ‘reflexemes’, occur in a number of genetically unrelated languages worldwide. Here we interrogate the cross-linguistic distribution and semantics of reflexemes, based on a sample of 58 languages from 6 genetic groups throughout Europe, Australia, and Asia. Reflexemes exhibit uneven distribution in this sample. Despite the presence of reflexemes across all three continents, European languages generally display much larger inventories. Based on our language sample’s contrasts, we hypothesize that these disparities could be driven by: the form of reflexive markers; their semantic range, including colexifications with anticausative constructions; and their longevity, with ancient, cognate European markers fostering accumulation of reflexemes via inheritance and borrowing. As for semantics, reflexemes target comparable emotions across languages. Specifically, categories labelled ‘Good feelings’, ‘Anger’, ‘Worry’, ‘Bad feelings’ and ‘Fear’ are consistently most prevalent. These tendencies apply across our sample, with no sign of family- or continent-specific semantic tendency. The observed semantic distribution may reflect universal lexicalization tendencies not specific to reflexemes, perhaps combined with an emphasis on self-evaluation and other social emotions imparted by reflexive semantics.
7. Abbreviations
- 1
-
first person
- 3
-
third person
- A
-
agent-like argument of canonical transitive verb
- abl
-
ablative
- abs
-
absolutive
- aux
-
auxiliary
- cm
-
conjugation marker
- com
-
comitative
- conj
-
conjunctive
- cont
-
continuous aspect
- dat
-
dative
- erg
-
ergative
- excl
-
exclusive
- exclm
-
exclamatory
- impf
-
imperfect
- intj
-
interjection
- iv
-
class IV, neuter gender
- loc
-
locative
- m
-
masculine
- min
-
minimal
- neg
-
negation, negative
- nf
-
non-future tense
- nom
-
nominative
- nPN
-
non-Pama-Nyungan
- npst
-
non-past
- oth
-
other
- P
-
patient-like argument of canonical transitive verb
- pl
-
plural
- PN
-
Pama-Nyungan
- poss
-
possessive
- pp
-
past perfective
- prn
-
pronoun
- prs
-
present
- pst
-
past
- ptcp
-
participle
- recip
-
reciprocal
- refl
-
reflexive
- S
-
single argument of canonical intransitive verb
- sg
-
singular
- stat
-
stative
- sub
-
subordinate
- tr
-
transitive
8. Appendices
8.1 Language sources
8.1.1 European language sources
Dutch, Germanic (ISO 639-3: nld)
Donaldson, Bruce. 2017. Dutch: A comprehensive grammar. Third edn. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315620787.
Oosterhoff, Jenneke. 2015. Modern Dutch grammar: A practical guide. Oxfordshire, England: Routledge.
Osselton, Noel & Hempleman, Robert. 2003. The new Routledge Dutch dictionary: Dutch-English/English-Dutch. London: Routledge.
English, Germanic (ISO 639-3: eng)
Aarts, Bas. 2011. Oxford modern English grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Collins. 2024. Collins English Dictionary. (https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english) (accessed 2022-10-10).
French, Romance (ISO 639-3: fra)
Byrne, Lionel Stanley Rice & Churchill, Ernest Lee & Glanville, Price. 1986. A comprehensive French grammar. Third edn. Oxford: Blackwell.
Collins. 2024. Collins French Dictionary. (https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-french) (accessed 2020-06-05).
Hawkins, Roger & Towell, Richard. 2010. French grammar and usage. Third edn. London: Hodder Education.
Price, Glanville. 2008. A comprehensive French grammar. Sixth edn. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
German, Germanic (ISO 639-3: deu)
Collins. 2024. Collins German Dictionary.(https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-german) (accessed 2020-06-14).
Whittle, Ruth & Klapper, John & Glöckel, Katharina & Dodd, Bill & Eckhard-Black, Christine. 2011. Modern German grammar: A practical guide. Third edn. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203832325.
Italian, Romance (ISO 639-3: ita)
Collins. 2024. Collins Italian Dictionary.(https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-italian) (accessed 2020-05-15).
de Rôme, Denise. 2018. Soluzioni: A practical grammar of contemporary Italian. Fourth edn. Routledge Concise Grammars. Oxfordshire, England: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429508202.
Spanish, Romance (ISO 639-3: spa)
Collins. 2024. Collins Spanish Dictionary.(https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-spanish) (accessed 2020-05-10).
Kattán-Ibarra, Juan& Pountain, Christopher. 2003. Modern Spanish grammar: A practical guide. Second edn. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203428313.
8.1.2 Australian Language sources
Alyawarr, Arandic, P-N (ISO 639-3: aly)
Green, Jenny & Blackman, David & Moore, David. 2019. Alyawarr to English dictionary. Alice Springs: IAD Press.
Moore, David. 2012. Alyawarr verb morphology. Perth: University of Western Australia (Master dissertation.)
Arabana-Wangkangurru, Karnic, P-N (ISO 639-3: ard; ISO 639-3: wgg)
Hercus, Luise. 1994. A grammar of the Arabana-Wangkangurru language Lake Eyre Basin, South Australia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Arrernte, Arandic, P-N (ISO 639-3: aer)
Green, Jenny. 2005. A learner’s guide to Eastern and Central Arrernte. Alice Springs: IAD Press.
Henderson, John. 1988. Topics in Eastern and Central Arrernte grammar. Perth: University of Western Australia.
Henderson, John & Dobson, Veronica. 1994. Eastern and Central Arrernte to English Dictionary. Alice Springs: IAD Press.
Bilinarra, Ngumpin-Yapa, P-N (Glottocode: bili1250)
Meakins, Felicity, & Nordlinger, Rachel. 2014. A grammar of Bilinarra: An Australian Aboriginal language of the Northern Territory. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Burarra, Maningrida, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: bvr)
Green, Rebecca. 1987. A sketch grammar of Burarra. Canberra: Australian National University.
Buwandik, Kulin-Bugandidj, P-N (ISO 639-3: xbg)
Blake, Barry. 2003. The Buganditj (Buwandik) language of the Mount Gambier region. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University.
Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: ngk)
Ponsonnet, Maïa. 2014. The language of emotions: The case of Dalabon (Australia). Cognitive Linguistic Studies in Cultural Studies. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Dyirbal, Dyirbalic, P-N (ISO 639-3: dbl)
Dixon, Robert M.W. 1972. The Dyirbal language of North Queensland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gaagudju, Isolate, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: gbu)
Harvey, Mark. 1992. The Gaagudju people and their language. Sydney: University of Sydney (Doctoral dissertation).
Gamilaraay/Yuwaalaraay, Wiradhuric, P-N (ISO 639-3: kld)
Giacon, John. 2014. A grammar of Yuwaalaraay and Gamilaraay: A description of two New South Wales Languages based on 160 years of records. Canberra: Australian National University (Doctoral dissertation).
Garrwa, Garrwan, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: wrk)
Mushin, Ilana. 2012. A grammar of Garrwa. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Giimbiyu, Isolate, N-P-N (Glottocode: giim1238)
Capell, Arthur. 1941. Languages of Arnhem Land, North Australia. Oceania 12. 364–392.
Gooniyandi, Bunuban, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: gni)
McGregor, William. 1990. A functional grammar of Gooniyandi. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.
Gumbaynggirr, Gumbayngirric, P-N (ISO 639-3: kgs)
Eades, Diana. 1979. Gumbaynggir. In Dixon, Robert M.W. & Blake, Barry (eds.), Handbook of Australian Languages, vol. 1. 245–362. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.
Gupapuyngu, Dhuwal, P-N (ISO 639-3: guf)
Lowe, Beulah. 2004. Yolngu-English dictionary. Winnellie: ARDS.
Wilkinson, Melanie. 1991. Djambarrpuyngu: A Yolngu variety of northern Australia. Sydney: University of Sydney (Doctoral dissertation).
Gurr-goni, Maningrida, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: gge)
Green, Rebecca. 1995. A grammar of Gurr-Goni (north central Arnhem Land). Canberra: Australian National University (Doctoral dissertation).
Guugu Yimidhirr, Yimidhirr-Yalanji-Yidinic, P-N (ISO 639-3: kky)
Haviland, John. 1979. Guugu Yimidhirr. In Dixon, Robert M.W. & Blake, Barry, Handbook of Australian Languages, vol 1. 27–182. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.
Iwaidja, Iwaidjan, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: ibd)
Pym, Noreen & Larrimore, Bonnie. 1979. Papers on Iwaidja phonology and grammar (Work Papers of SIL – AAB, Series A). Darwin: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Scannell, Kevin. 2018. Crúbadán Language Data for Iwaidja. The Crúbadán Project. Missouri, United States of America: Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Saint Louis University.
Jingulu, Mirndi, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: jig)
Pensalfini, Robert. 2003. Jingulu grammar, an Aboriginal language of the Northern Territory. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Kalkatungu, Kalkatungic, P-N (ISO 639-3: ktg)
Blake, Barry. 1979. A Kalkatungu grammar. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
Kayardild, Tangkic, P-N (ISO 639-3: gyd)
Evans, Nicholas. 1992. Kayardild dictionary and thesaurus. Parkville: Department of Linguistic and Language Studies, University of Melbourne.
Evans, Nicholas. 1995. A grammar of Kayardild: With historical-comparative notes on Tangkic. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Kaytetye, Arandic, P-N (ISO 639-3: gbb)
Turpin, Myfany. 2000. A learner’s guide to Kaytetye. Alice Springs: IAD Press.
Turpin, Myfany, & Ross, Allison. 2011. Kaytetye to English dictionary. Alice Springs: IAD Press.
Kriol, English-based Creole, Top End, Barunga Variety, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: rop)
Ponsonnet, Maïa. 2016a. Emotion middle predicates in Barunga Kriol. (Paper presented at the Australian Language Workshop, Canberra, 3–6 March 2016).
Ponsonnet, Maïa. 2016b. Reflexive, reciprocal and emphatic functions in Barunga Kriol. In Meakins, Felicity & O’Shannessy, Carmel, Loss and Renewal: Australian Language Since Colonisation, 297–332. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781614518792-016.
Kugu-Nganhcara, Paman, P-N (ISO 639-3: xmh)
Smith, Ian & Johnson, Steve. 2000. Kugu Nganhcara. In Dixon, Robert M.W. & Blake, Barry, Handbook of Australian Languages, vol 5. 357–507. SouthMelbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press.
Kuku Yalanji, Yimidhirr-Yalanji-Yidinic, P-N (ISO 639-3: gvn)
Hershberger, Ruth & Hershberger, Henry. 1982. Kuku-Yalanji dictionary. Darwin: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Patz, Elisabeth. 2002. A grammar of the Kuku Yalanji language of North Queensland. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
Kuuk Thaayorre, Paman, P-N (ISO 639-3: thd)
Gaby, Alice. 2017. A grammar of Kuuk Thaayorre. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Larrakia, Darwin, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: lrg)
Capell, Arthur. 1984. The Laragia language. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
Limilngan, Darwin, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: lmc)
Harvey, Mark. 2001. A grammar of Limilngan: A language of the Mary River region Northern Territory Australia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Murrinh-Patha, Southern-Daly, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: mwf)
Mollingin, Gregory & Street, Chester. 1983. Dictionary: English/Murrinh-Patha. Port Keats: Wadeye Press.
Street, Chester S. 1987. An introduction to the language and culture of the Murrinh-Patha. Darwin: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Walsh, Michael. 1976. The Murinypata language of north-west Australia. Canberra: Australian National University.
Nakara, Maningrida, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: nck)
Eather, Bronwyn. 1990. A grammar of Nakkara (central Arnhem Land coast). Canberra: Australian National University.
Ndjébbana, Maningrida, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: djj)
McKay, Graham. 2000. Ndjébbana. In Dixon, Robert M.W. & Blake, Barry, The Handbook of Australian Languages, vol. 5 155–354. South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press.
Nhanta (Nhanda), Kartu, P-N (ISO 639-3: nha)
Blevins, Juliette. 2001. Nhanda: An Aboriginal language of Western Australia. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.
Nunggubuyu/Wubuy, Gunwinyguan, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: nuy)
Heath, Jeffrey M. 1982. Nunggubuyu Dictionary. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
Heath, Jeffrey M. 1984. Functional grammar of Nunggubuyu. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
Hore, Michael. 2014. Nunggubuyu dictionary. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies.
Nyangumarta, Marrngu, P-N (ISO 639-3: nna)
Geytenbeek, Brian & Burgman, Albert. 2008. Nyangumarta – English dictionary: English – Nyangumarta wordlist and topical wordlist. Port Hedland: Wangka Maya Pilbara Aboriginal Language Centre.
Sharp, Janet. 2004. Nyangumarta: A language of the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Nyulnyul, Nyulnyulan, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: nyv)
McGregor, William. 2011. The Nyulnyul language of Dampier land, Western Australia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Nyungar (Noongar), Nyungic, P-N (ISO 639-3: nys)
Rooney, Bernard. 2011. Nyoongar dictionary. Batchelor: Batchelor Press.
Paakantyi (Darling Language), Yarli-Baagandji, P-N (ISO 639-3: drl)
Hercus, Luise. 1960. Baagandji grammar. Canberra: Australian National University.
Hercus, Luise. 1993. Paakantyi dictionary. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies.
Pitta Pitta, Karnic, P-N (ISO 639-3: pit)
Blake, Barry. 1979. Pitta-Pitta. In Dixon, Robert M.W. & Blake, Barry, Handbook of Australian Languages, vol 1. 183–242. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Umbugarla, Darwin, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: umr)
Davies, Jennifer. 1989. Umbugarla: A sketch grammar. Melbourne: University of Melbourne (Master dissertation).
Walmajarri, Ngumpin-Yapa, P-N (ISO 639-3: wmt)
Hudson, Joyce. 1978. The core of Walmatjari grammar. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
Richards, Eirlys & Hudson, Joyce. 1990. Walmajarri – English dictionary with English finder list. Berrimah, Northern Territory: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Wambaya, Mirndi, N-P-N (Glottocode: nucl1328)
Nordlinger, Rachel. 1998. A grammar of Wambaya, Northern Territory (Australia). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Wardaman, Yangmanic, N-P-N (ISO 639-3: wrr)
Merlan, Francesca. 1994. A grammar of Wardaman: A language of the Northern Territory of Australia. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Warlpiri, Ngumpin-Yapa, P-N (ISO 639-3: wbp)
Laughren, Mary & Hale, Kenneth & Nungarrayi Egan, Jeannie & Patrick Jangala, Marlurrku Paddy & Hoogenraad, Robert & Nash, David & Simpson, Jane. 2022. Warlpiri encyclopaedic dictionary. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press.
Simpson, Jane. 1991. Warlpiri morpho-syntax: A lexicalist approach. (Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, Vol. 23). Dordrecht: Springer Science and Business.
Warrnambool, Kulinic, P-N (ISO 639-3: gjm)
Blake, Barry. 2003. The Warrnambool language: A consolidated account of the Aboriginal language of the Warrnambool area of the western district of Victoria based on nineteenth-century sources. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
Wemba-Wemba, Kulinic, P-N (Glottocode: wemb1241)
Hercus, Luise. 1992. Wembawemba Dictionary. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies.
Wiradjuri, Wiradhuric, P-N (ISO 639-3: wrh)
Grant, Stan & Rudder, John. 2010. A new Wiradjuri dictionary. O’Connor, Australian Capital Territory: Restoration House.
Wirangu, Thura Yura, P-N (ISO 639-3: wgu)
Hercus, Luisa. 1999. A grammar of the Wirangu language from the west coast of South Australia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Woiwurrung, Kulinic, P-N (Glottocode: woiw1238)
Blake, Barry. 1991. Woiwurrung, the Melbourne language. In Dixon, Robert M.W. & Blake, Barry, Handbook of Australian Languages, vol. 4, 30–122. South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press.
Yindjibarndi, Ngayarta, P-N (ISO 639-3: yij)
Wordick, Frank. 1982. The Yindjibarndi language. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
Yugambeh/Banjalang, Bandjalangic, P-N (ISO 639-3: xjb)
Sharpe, Margaret. 1998. Dictionary of Yugambeh including neighbouring dialects. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
8.1.3 Asian language sources
Mandarin Chinese, Sino-Tibetan, East Asia (ISO 639-3: cmn)
Huang, Churen & Shi, Dingxu. 2016. A reference grammar of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kleeman, Julie & Yu, Haijiang (eds.). 2010. The Oxford Chinese dictionary English-Chinese: Chinese-English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ross, Claudia & Ma, Jing-heng Sheng. 2013. Modern Mandarin Chinese grammar: A practical guide. London, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203799932.
Vietnamese, Austroasiatic, South-East Asia (ISO 639-3: vie)
Phê, Hoàng & Linh, Hoang Thi Tuyen & Luong, Vu Xuan (eds.). 2017. Vietnamese dictionary (Từ Điển Tiếng Việt). Scotts Valley, California: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Ngo, Binh. 2020. Vietnamese: An essential grammar. London: Routledge.
8.2 Supplementary appendices
See the below link for supplementary appendices relating to the reflexeme inventories of each language and the coding files used for quantitative analysis.
https://osf.io/6bvje/?view_only=2486a286a5934146a3e67d176695efa2
8.2.1 Supplementary Appendix 1 – Reflexeme inventories
8.2.2 Supplementary Appendix 2 – Reflexeme coding
8.2.3 Supplementary Appendix 3 – R code reflexemes
8.2.4 Supplementary Appendix 4 – Generated report from R
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