Dative subjects in Germanic
-
Jóhanna Barðdal
,
Carlee Arnett
Abstract
One of the functions of the dative is to mark non-prototypical subjects, i. e. subjects that somehow deviate from the agentive prototype. The Germanic languages, as all subbranches of Indo-European (cf. Barðdal et al. 2012. Reconstructing constructional semantics: The dative subject construction in Old Norse‐Icelandic, Latin, Ancient Greek, Old Russian and Old Lithuanian. Studies in Language 36(3). 511–547), exhibit structures where the subject or the subject-like argument is not in the nominative case, but in the accusative, dative or genitive, for instance. The focus of this article is on the dative, leaving accusative and genitive subjects aside, in particular homing in on lexical semantic similarities and differences between the individual Germanic languages. We compare Modern Icelandic, Modern Faroese, and Modern German, on the one hand, and the historical Germanic languages, i. e. Gothic, Old English, Old Saxon, Old High German, Middle English, Middle Dutch, Middle German, Old Norse-Icelandic and Old Swedish, on the other. The goal is to document the semantic development of the construction across time. This, in turn, is a part of a more general research program aiming at reconstructing the origin and the development of the Dative Subject Construction in Germanic and Indo-European. As the Germanic languages are both genealogically and areally related, we suggest a computational model aiming at disentangling genealogical and geographical factors, in order to estimate to which degree the two interact with each other across languages and across historical eras.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank our research assistants in Iceland and the Faroe Islands, Védís Ragnheiðardóttir, Bjarki M. Karlsson, Stefán Ólafsson and Olga Højgaard Helmsdal, for their invaluable help with entering the Icelandic and the Faroese material into the NonCanCase database. We are also immensely grateful to Tonya Kim Dewey for her work on the Gothic, Old Saxon, Old English and the Old High German data. Our deepest thanks go to the audiences in Regensburg (2010), Austin, TX (2011), Xi’an (2011), Osaka (2011), Portland, OR (2012), Berkeley, CA (2012), Reykjavík (2013), Logroño (2014), Ghent (2015), Brussels (2015), Kviknes, Norway (2015), Naples (2015) and Leiden (2015), where different parts of this work have been presented. Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to Michael Dunn and Gabriele Diewald who took the time to give us extensive feedback on the entire manuscript, and to Gabriele for welcoming this article into her thematic issue on datives. This research was funded with generous grants from the Norwegian Research Council (NonCanCase, grant nr. 205007) and the European Research Council (EVALISA, grant nr. 313461) to Jóhanna Barðdal. Contributions: JB designed the linguistic research, JB, TE and GBJ planned and wrote the manuscript; JB, CA, SMC, TE, GK and AO collected the data and entered it into the NonCanCase database; GBJ designed and carried out the computational analysis. All authors participated in the discussion and contributed to the interpretation of the results.
Abbreviations
- acc
accusative
- dat
dative
- Far
Faroese
- gen
genitive
- Go
Gothic
- inf
infinitive
- MD
Middle Dutch
- ME
Middle English
- nom
nominative
- obl
obligative
- OE
Old English
- OF
Old French
- OHG
Old High German
- OLG
Old Low German
- ON-I
Old Norse-Icelandic
- OS
Old Saxon
- OSw
Old Swedish
- pl
plural
- pp
prepositional object
- sg
singular
- sbjv
subjunctive
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Appendix: Narrowly-circumscribed lexical semantic verb classes
| LIKE: |
| like: galeikan (Go), lician (OE), galihhen (OHG), lîkon (OS), like (ME), lijken (MD), ze muote sîn (MHG), biliavia (OF), falla (í geð) (ON-I), gätas aat (OSw), dáma (Far) |
| like to hear: fallast í eyru ON-I) |
| be pleased: geweorðan (OE), liobo sîn (OHG), noegen (MD), bihagon (OS), paien (ME), leif syn (MLG), finnast (ON-I), anöghia (OSw), finnast um (Far) |
| be satisfied: kuole sîn (OHG), genoegen (MD), nogia (OF) |
| love: leika ást á (ON-I) |
| feel compassionate: verða ástúð til (ON-I) |
| appreciate: vera virkt á (ON-I) |
| ENJOY/HAPPINESS: |
| be(come) happy: wola sîn (OHG), gladmôd hugi uuesan (OS), hlæja hugur í brjósti (ON-I) |
| enjoy: gemedost beon (OE), hugi frâhmôd uuesan (OS), lieben (MHG) |
| be joyful: gewin beon (OE) |
| be content: galeikan (Go), selre beon (OE) |
| feel good: bjóða þekt (ON-I) |
| feel/cry of joy: gröta af gläþi (OSw) |
| gladden: gladen (ME) |
| rejoice: faginon (Go) |
| get excited: hlaupa kapp í kinn (Ic) |
| SUFFER/DISTRESS: |
| be troubled: hugi sêreg uuesan (OS), ben noien (ME) |
| discomfort: wanhagen (MD) |
| be restless: gerast ekki vært (ON-I) |
| suffer/be distressed: harm an (heart/mind) uuesan (OS), leiden (MHG), qualen (MD) |
| have woe: wai wisan (Go), wa beon (OE), uuê sin (OS), we sîn (OHG), ôwê sîn (MHG), wee zin (MD), vara ve (OSw), vera vei (ON-I) |
| ANGER/IRRITATION: |
| be(come) angry: ando uuesan (OS), gramian (OE), zorn sîn (MHG), renna í skap (ON-I), renna í sinni (Far) |
| be annoyed/irritated: eglan (OE), vernooyen (MD), skaprauna (ON-I), grämia (OSw) |
| RELIEVE/EASE: |
| feel relief: bot beon (OE), léttast (ON-I) |
| become at ease: hægjast um (ON-I) |
| be easy: raþizo wisan (Go), eaðe beon (OE), vera auðið (ON-I), vära ödhgiorth (OSw) |
| be good: goþ wisan (Go), god/betere beon (OE), wola sîn (OHG), ben better (ME), guot sîn (MHG), beter zijn, (MD), vara väl (OSw), verða vel (Far), verða vel (Ice) |
| SORROW/SADNESS: |
| be in sorrow: an sorgun uuesan (OS), leit sîn (MHG), jameren (MD), trägha (OSw), angra (ON-I) |
| have tears falling: trahni fallan (OS) |
| lament: an wite gemæne beon (OE) |
| be saddened: hugi sêr uuerthan (OS), ôwê sîn (MHG), wee zijn (MD), leiðast við (Far) |
| be homesick: leika landmunir (ON-I) |
| PAIN: |
| feel pain: swärn (MHG), smerten (ME), sárna (ON-I), angra (OSw), berast á (Far) |
| be wounded: vera sár (ON-I |
| feel pinched by sth: há (ON-I) |
| harm, cause trouble: scondlic beon (OE), standa vandræði af (ON-I), bila (Far) |
| BITTERNESS/HATE: |
| be disgusted: wlaten (ME), erklich über gân (MHG), bjóða óþekkt (ON-I), forthryta (OSw) |
| be/find hateful: lêdon (OS) |
| be loathsome: lethe to mode wesa (OF) |
| feel belittled: versmaden (MD) |
| hate: lað beon (OE), eisen (MD), ben loth (ME) |
| HAVE HOPE/WISH: |
| be hopeful: hopa beon (OE), væna (ON-I), hopa (OSw) |
| have faith: truwe beon (OE) |
| have a wish: lusten (ME) |
| lack courage: bila áræðið (ON-I) |
| SUIT/BE PROPER/CORRECT: |
| suit, become: gadofs wisan (Go), zieman (OHG), girîsan (OS), gecynde beon (OE), gezemen (MHG), betemen (MD), bicomen (ME), sama (ON-I), synas (OSw), søma (Far) |
| be proper for sby: sama (ON-I), höfa (OSw), høva (Far) |
| be fitting: girîsan (OS), behove (ME), boren (MD) |
| find appropriate: gebeorhlic beon (OE), gilimphan (OHG) |
| BODILY TEMP: |
| feel warm: wesa heta (OF), hitna (ON-I) |
| feel cold: calan (OE), wesa kalde (OF) |
| (start to) freeze: vriesen (MD), vriezen (MHG), kólna (ON-I) |
| feel cool: svala (ON-I) |
| boil inside: siuden (MHG) |
| GET YOUNGER/OLDER: |
| be of advanced age: gialdrod uuesan (OS), vaxa aldur (ON-I) |
| SLEEP/CONSCIOUSNESS: |
| get a clouded vision: draga ský (ON-I) |
| feel sleepy: gera svefnhöfugt (ON-I), syfia (OSw) |
| fall/be asleep: swefnian (OE), slapen (MD) |
| lose consciousness: sortna fyrir augum (ON-I) |
| faint: giswinten (OHG), entswīchen, geswinden (MHG) |
| come to one’s senses: vercomen (MD) |
| HUNGER/THIRST: |
| hunger: hunger beon (OE), hunger (ME), hungren (MD), hungra (OSw) |
| thirst: þurst beon (OE), dorsten (MD), dorsten (MLG), þörsta (OSw) |
| be full: sware zijn (MD) |
| SWALLOW/CHOKE: |
| go down the wrong way (about food): svelgjast á (ON-I) |
| SUSPECT: |
| suspect: bemoeden (MD), boða hugur (ON-I), renna í hug (Far) |
| have apprehension: segja hugur um (ON-I), vara (Far) |
| be suspicious: vera tortryggð á (ON-I) |
| BE (IN)DETERMINED: |
| change one’s mind: hugi giuuendid uuerðan (OS), gangast hugur við (ON-I) |
| be hesitant: vera um og ó (ON-I) |
| be in doubt: twynung beon (OE), zwîveln (MHG), tueho uuesan (OS), twivelen (MD), tvifla (OSw) |
| have (good) intentions: bjóða hugur (ON-I) |
| have options: leggias (OSw) |
| BE SURPRISED/CONFUSED: |
| be confounded: fipast (ON-I) |
| forbode: furða (ON-I) |
| be amazed: starcho in muote sîn (OHG), wonderen (ME), hnykkja við (ON-I) |
| find indescribable: unasecgendlic beon (OE) |
| be surprised: uundar uuesan (OS), forwondria (OF), wonder (ME), bregða í brún (ON-I), hisna widher (OSw), verða dátt við (Far) |
| be confused: swindeln (MHG) |
| be startled: bregða (ON-I), verða dátt við (Far) |
| be shocked: blöskra (ON-I), tykja yfir í (Far) |
| SEEM/APPEAR: |
| seem: thugkain (Go), thunkean (OS), seme (ME), dünken (MLG), virðast (ON-I), sýnast (Far), scheinen (MHG) |
| be clear/apparent to sby: |
| appear: schîn tun (MHG), birtast (ON-I), synas (OSw) |
| SPEAKING: |
| say, speak: hleoðrian (OE), uuord faran fan mûðe (OS), kveðast (ON-I) |
| speak well: mælast (ON-I) |
| have a slip of the tongue: verða á mismæli (ON-I) |
| misspeak: vefjast tunga um tönn (ON-I) |
| accidentally speak (out a poem): verða vísa á munni (ON-I), leypa av munni (Far) |
| not run out of words: ni worto gerinnan (OHG) |
| be struck dumb: verða orðfall (ON-I) |
| chatter (uncausiously): seien (ME), verða létthjalað (ON-I) |
| exaggerate: svella í munni (ON-I) |
| FAIL: |
| fail, do wrong: mislimpan (OE), misselingen (OHG), mat sîn (MHG), gefask yfir (ON-I), brista (OSw), bresta (Far) |
| go amiss with sby: mistimian (OE), misfarast (ON-I) |
| not succeed/go wrong: mistakast (ON-I), misganga (OSw) |
| make a mistake: skjótast yfir (ON-I), verða á (Far) |
| go badly: harka (ON-I), verða illa úr (Far) |
| falter: skjátlast (ON-I) |
| be slow: lata (ON-I) |
| escape one’s notice: yfirsjást um (ON-I) |
| not bite (about weapons): bíta (ON-I) |
| SLIP/LOSE: |
| slip/stagger: missa (ON-I), berast á (Far) |
| lose/be of loss: agan (OE), vera sviptir í (ON-I) ganga aff (OSw) |
| have a miscarriage: misvallen (MD) |
| HINDER: |
| get hindrance/stay: bûan (OS), letten (MD), dveljast (ON-I), dvälia (OSw), berast fyri (Far) |
| get caught: áhankast (ON-I) |
| be delayed/hindered: verða seint (ON-I) |
| not reach: bíta fyrir (ON-I) |
| get impeded: hlekkjast á (ON-I), dvälia (OSw), berast frá (Far) |
| fare slowly: farast seint (ON-I) |
| get/be lost: fraqistnan (Go), gedwoland becuman (OE) |
| have (bad) luck: aka (ON-I), bera á (Far) |
| lead to death: draga til dauða (ON-I) |
| cease to exist: an erðu uuerðan (OS) |
| get drowned: drekkja (ON-I) |
| pay dearly for sth: hefnast (Ice) |
| BENEFIT: |
| benefit: geynen (ME), aflast (ON-I) |
| profit: græðast (ON-I) |
| get, receive: áskotnast (ON-I) |
| inherit: tæmast arfur (ON-I) |
| befall: bera til (ON-I) |
| receive reward: lean beon (OE) |
| be of an advantage: beschieten (MD) |
| be ordained by fate: auðnast (ON-I) |
| manage to collect: safnast (ON-I) |
| happen to pull money to oneself: dragast (ON-I) |
| produce a (lawful) witness: fullnast vitni (ON-I) |
| be saved: verða til lífs (ON-I) |
| HAPPEN: |
| happen: gebyrian (OE), giburren (OHG), happen (ME), geschëhen (MHG), geschen (MLG), gewerden (MD), verða (ON-I), hända (OSw), verða (Far) |
| come upon: bera í hendur (ON-I) |
| have luck: fallen (ME) |
| happen to laugh: bjóða í látur (Far) |
| happen to meet: bera saman fundum (ON-I) |
| pass before one’s eyes: bregða fyrir (ON-I) |
| have a narrow escape: vera nær ekið (ON-I) |
| SUPERIORITY: |
| have power: miht beon (OE) |
| be glorified: wulþus wisan (Go), þrymm beon (OE) |
| be praised: lof beon (OE), loven (MLG) |
| feel honored by sth: sweriþa wisan (Go), vera höfuðburður at (ON-I) |
| be fame in sth: vera frægð í (ON-I) |
| BEGIN/CONTINUE/END: |
| begin: hefja (ON-I) |
| continue: ganga (ON-I) |
| end: gâch sîn (MHG), ljúka (ON-I) |
| dwindle: zwiron (OHG), þverra (ON-I) |
| diminish: halla (ON-I) |
| increase: auka (ON-I) |
| LOCOMOTION: |
| roll: ríða að (ON-I) |
| fall/slip: skjóta (ON-I) |
| wash off: skola (ON-I) |
| NON-TRANSLATIONAL MOTION: |
| trend: víkja (ON-I) |
| lean: halla (ON-I) |
| capsize: hvelfa (ON-I) |
| roll: ríða (ON-I) |
| be thrown over: kasta (ON-I) |
| be knocked down: drepa (ON-I) |
| lift: hefja (ON-I) |
| turn: wenden (MHG), snúa (ON-I) |
| be pushed back: bægja (ON-I) |
| be dashed against: berja (ON-I) |
| be driven off: zefuoren (OHG) |
| TRANSLATIONAL MOTION: |
| spread/distribute: drífa (ON-I) |
| drift: svífa (ON-I) |
| dash off: vippa (ON-I) |
| DISLIKE: |
| dislike: mislician (OE), misselîhhên (OHG), verdrieten (MD), leiðast (ON-I), forthykkia (OSw), skríma einki um (Far) |
| be(come) unhappy: ofþinken (ME), forþokkast (ON-I) |
| find unpleasant: haga (Far) |
| detest: standast við (Far) |
| LONG: |
| long: langôn (OS), langen (MD), long (ME), lengjast (ON-I), forlanga (OSw), leingjast (Far) |
| have desire: lust beon (OE), uuilleo uuesan (OS), swëllen in brust (MHG), fýsast (ON-I) |
| want: lysta (OSw), fýsa (Far) |
| be willing: uuilleo gistandan (OS), vera viljað (ON-I) |
| have interest for: spuon (MHG), vera hugur (ON-I) |
| be eager: heiz sîn (OHG), gâch sîn (MHG), vera tíðkan á (ON-I) |
| yearn for: länkta (OSw) |
| FEEL/EXPERIENCE: |
| feel: líða (ON-I), zumute sein (Ger) |
| feel/think: finnast (ON-I), þyckia (OSw) |
| feel: búa í skapi (ON-I), edha (OSw) |
| feel at rest: eira (ON-I) |
| be in a spirit: liggja á (ON-I) |
| experience something as new: vera nýnæmi í (ON-) |
| FEAR/DANGER: |
| have fear/agony: ogan (Go), ondrysne beon (OE), angia (OF), egison (OHG), vereisen (MD), ofdreden (ME), grâwen (MHG), gruwen (MLG), varen (MD) vera ótti (ON-I), ræþas (OSw) |
| become terrified: gruwelen (MD), renna kalt vatn milli skinns og hörunds (ON-I), fasa (OSw) |
| have evil: yfel beon (OE) |
| shudder: grisen (OE), blikra (ON-I) |
| be in danger: standa mein að (ON-I), vera að meini (Far) |
| be (not) out of danger: vera borgið (ON-I), standa ikki til bót (Far) |
| BORED/TIRED: |
| be bored: leiðast (ON-I), leþas viþer (OSw), leiðast við (Far) |
| be/grow weary: verwassen (MD) |
| tire of: aþreotan (OE), forthryta (OSw) |
| reach a point: komen an das zil (OHG) |
| BURDEN/LOAD: |
| worry: saurga wisan (Go), müejen (MHG), fá áhyggju (ON-I), weh sein (ModG) |
| have it bad: ubilo sîn (OHG), ben wrse (ME), verða illa við (Far) |
| be bothered: angra (ON-I) |
| regret: gehreowan (OE), tregen (OS), forthinken (ME), rouwen (MD), vera eftirsjá að (ON-I), angra (OSw) |
| feel pressed: þröngva (ON-I) |
| feel heavy: þyngja (ON-I) |
| feel discouraged: feilast (ON-I) |
| have problems with sth: nôten (MHG), vandræðast (ON-I) |
| find (im)possible: hlýðast (ON-I), |
| be difficult: aglu wisan (Go), harto sizzen (OHG), ben hard (ME), veitast þungt (ON-I) |
| be disappointed: verða von að lygi (ON-I) |
| be in a hurry: zouwen (MHG), liggja á (Ice) |
| be of cost: hefnast (ON-I) |
| find strength in sth: vera styrkur að (ON-I) |
| be awkward: vera um hönd (ON-I) |
| feel deeply affected: renna til rifja (ON-I) |
| SHAME: |
| be shameful: sceamian (OE), shamen (ME), vera skömm að (ON-I), blyghias (OSw) |
| be disgraced: edwit beon (OE) |
| put to shame: bescamen (MD) |
| CARE: |
| care: umbi uuesan (OS), recchen (ME), vera um (ON-I) |
| find (un)important for sby: skipta (ekki) máli (ON-I) |
| find valuable: uuerð uuesan (OS) |
| have something at heart: vera umhugað um (ON-I) |
| be of smb’s business/concern: bestaen (MD), liggja við (ON-I) |
| feel pity for: ofhreowan (OE), verdunken (MD), ömka (OSw), tykja synd í (Far), vera vorkunn (Ice) |
| have mercy on: verbarmen (MD) |
| SUFFICE/BE OF USE: |
| be sufficient/suffice: ganah (Go), dugan (OE), ginuagi sîn (OHG), sufficen (ME), genüegen (MHG), duga (ON-I), duga (OSw) |
| have use of sth: bruks wisan (Go), gearu beon (OE), tugan (OHG), availen (ME), tugen (MHG), verða gagn (ON-I), vara gagn (OSw) |
| GET BETTER/WORSE: |
| get better (health): waila wairþan (Go), bazên (OHG), bet beon (OE), bazzen (MHG), batna (ON-I), batna (Far) |
| get worse: daprast (ON-I) |
| grow weak: unmahten (OHG), becuman (OE), aven (MD), förlast (ON-I), vanska (OSw) |
| be healed in the mind: gehêlid uusean (OS) |
| come to: sachten (MD) |
| DISEASE (SYMPTOMS): |
| bleed: blæða (ON-I), ganga blod (OSw) |
| be afflicted (with a disease): eilen (ME), ganga up a (OSw) |
| be injured: agljan (Go), daru beon (OE), misfarast (ON-I) |
| feel sick: geeglan (OE) |
| feel pain: swaro sîn (OHG), akan (OE) |
| be in torture: cwealm beon (OE) |
| be affected by one’s wounds: we deden (MLG) |
| shiver: bidemen (MHG), gnolla (ON-I), skiälva (OSw) |
| break out (with symptoms): bresta (OSw) |
| feel dizzy: unwillion (OHG), uuillion (OS), mislika (OSw) |
| vomit: hrjóða (ON-I) |
| feel worn (by sickness): há (ON-I) |
| smart: swedan (OHG), súrna í augum (ON-I), bíta (Far) |
| tickle: kitlast (Far) |
| swell: swëllen (MHG) |
| (COME TO) THINK: |
| think: on þonce beon (OE) thunkean (OS), thunken (OHG), dunken (MD) |
| occur to one’s mind: on mod beirnan (OE), an hugi fallan (OS), in muat koman (OHG), denken (MD), hugsast (ON-I), skjóta í huga (Far) |
| get an idea: hugkvæmast (ON-I), detta í hug (Far) |
| consider: geþyncan (OE), thenkean (OS) |
| wonder: wondren (ME), wonderen (MD), mikla (ON-I) |
| expect: wana beon (OE), vera von (ON-I), vänta (OSw) |
| have an understanding (or not): skiljast (ON-I), skiljast (Far) |
| have in mind: zi muote sîn (OHG), búa í skapi ON-I) |
| (CHANGE OF) KNOWING: |
| know: kunþs wisan (Go), (un)cuð beon (OE), vera (ó)kunnleiki á (ON-I) |
| find familiar: giswas sîn (OHG) |
| forget: vergeten (MD), fyrnast (ON-I), detta úr minni (Far) |
| remember: mynegian (OE), menen (ME), gehogen (MD), loða í eyrum (ON-I), koma i hugh (OSw), koma til hugs (Far) |
| learn: tagen (OHG), lærast (Ice) |
| be curious: firiuuit mikil uuesan (OS), skeyta forvitni (ON-I) |
| recognize: berast kensla á (Far) |
| PERCEPTION: |
| hear: heyrast (ON-I) |
| hear news: spyrjast (ON-I) |
| dream: mætan (OE), troumen (OHG), dremen (ME), troumen (MHG), dromen (MLG), dromen (MD), vera draums (ON-I), dröma (OSw) |
| have a vision: vitra (ON-I) |
| misapprehend: missýnast (ON-I) |
| be tasteful: smaka (OSw), bragðast (Ice), schmecken (Ger) |
| DIS/AGREE: |
| come in collision with: lenda saman (ON-I) |
| agree/get along with: lynda (ON-I), aasämia (OSw), lynda (Far) |
| disagree: missemja (ON-I) |
| have a discontentment with: eldast óþokki af (ON-I) |
| SUCCESS: |
| make progress: fara fram (ON-I) |
| fare well: limpan (OE), ergân (MHG), ergaen (MD), farast vel (ON-I) |
| do well: gegan (OE), ganga (ON-I), ganga wäl (OSw), gangast væl (Far) |
| be well off: loðaði nógv uppi við (Far) |
| have victory over: sige cuman (OE), sigrast (ON-I) |
| succeed: gespowan (OE), zawen (OHG), gelingen (MHG), raken (MD), heppnast (ON-I), ganga med (OSw), eydnast (Far) |
| manage: takast (ON-I), lykkas (OSw) |
| GROW: |
| gain strength: vaxa fiskur um hrygg (ON-I) |
| grow: uuahsan (OS), vaxa fjaðrir (ON-I) |
| sprout: kînan (OS) |
| prosper: wel beon (OE) |
| POSSESSION: |
| be called: nama beon (OE) |
| have, possess: anan henti sîn (OHG) |
| belong: gehören (MHG), böra (OSw), bera til (ON-I) |
| LACK: |
| lack: wan ist (Go), zirinnan (OHG), brestan (OS), lakken (ME), gebrechen, (MHG), gebreken (MD), berste (OF), bila (ON-I), brista (OSw), vanta (Far) |
| be deprived: benæmed beon (OE) |
| NECESSITY: |
| need: niedþearf beon (OE), tharf uuesan (OS), thurft sîn (OHG), neden (ME), vera þörf á (ON-I), behöfva (OSw), tørva (Far) |
| be necessary for: bera nauðsyn til (ON-I) |
| OBLIGATION: |
| be obliged: bera (ON-I), böra (OSw) |
| be destined to/must: gescapen syn (MLG) |
| have to/must: mæl beon (OE), beren (ME), nödhga (OSw) |
| PERMISSION: |
| be offered: bjóðast (ON-I) |
| be allowed: alyfed beon (OE) |
| be permitted: skuld wisan (Go) |
| be supposed: horen (MD) |
| POSSIBILITY: |
| be possible: koma við (ON-I) |
| ONTOLOGICAL STATES: |
| be in a certain way: wenden (MHG), vera farið (ON-I) |
| originate in: bregða til (ON-I) |
| be in the right place: geslaht sîn (OHG) |
| have a mother (of a certain type): mæðra (ON-I) |
| make a difference: muna (ON-I) |
| amount to: skipta (ON-I) |
| be accompanied by: fylghia (OSw) |
| (DIS)SIMILARITY: |
| turn into one’s kin: kippa í kynið (ON-I) |
| PROPERTIES/ABILITIES: |
| never smile: stökkva bros á vör (ON-I) |
| have a simple heart: enfald hugi uuesan (OS) |
| have an ability: swintilôn (OHG), vera gefið (ON-I) |
| be innate: vara infött (OSw) |
| be natural: eađelic beon (OE), vara naturlikt (OSw) |
| be able to: ganga (ON-I) |
| be able to keep sth: haldast á (ON-I) |
| be highly capable: vera ekki fisjað saman (ON-I) |
| one’s hands be amiss: vera mislagðar hendur (ON-I) |
| be handicapped by sth: há (ON-I) |
| be unstable: ni fast uuesan (OS), hvikast (ON-I) |
| never miss out on one’s duties: falla aldrei verk úr hendi (Ice) |
| DAYLIGHT: |
| subside: birta (ON-I) |
| gleam: ljóma (ON-I) |
| WIND/WEATHER: |
| blow: blása (ON-I) |
| get wind: byrja (ON-I) |
| rain: rigna (ON-I) |
| strike: ljósta (ON-I) |
| MOTION IN TIME: |
| move closer: líða (ON-I), líða (Far) |
| go on: ganga (ON-I) |
©2016 by De Gruyter Mouton
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Non-central usages of datives
- The dative of agent in Indo-European languages
- Dative subjects in Germanic
- Dem Herrgott sei Scheenster
- The syntax of external and internal possessor variation in German inalienable possession
- External possession and constructions that may have it
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Non-central usages of datives
- The dative of agent in Indo-European languages
- Dative subjects in Germanic
- Dem Herrgott sei Scheenster
- The syntax of external and internal possessor variation in German inalienable possession
- External possession and constructions that may have it
