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Gender-inclusive morphology in Spanish: learnability, processing costs, and use

  • Ezequiel M. Durand-López EMAIL logo and Kendra V. Dickinson
Published/Copyright: September 3, 2025
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Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics
From the journal Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics Volume 18 Issue 2

Abstract

In Spanish, the -e suffix as a gender-inclusive morpheme (e.g., elles son bonites) has been proposed as an alternative to traditional -o to refer to mixed-gender groups. Limited studies on this innovation suggest that the computation of inclusive morphology might not incur high processing costs. However, it is unclear whether native speakers who have acquired the Spanish binary grammatical system before puberty effectively process noun-adjective gender agreement with said inclusive language morpheme. Thirty-seven native speakers of Spanish completed a self-paced reading task and a sociolinguistic questionnaire. The former task contained sentences with (1) a subject comprised of two stereotypically masculine names (e.g., Pedro) and two stereotypically feminine names (e.g., María), (2) the verb están, and (3) an adjective with the traditional -o suffix or the inclusive -e suffix, and the latter included questions about language use and beliefs. Results show that while -e was associated with longer processing time overall, participants who reported using inclusive language most frequently showed no difference in processing -o and -e. Additionally, questionnaire data show that participant beliefs about learnability and usability of inclusive language mirror experimental findings. These results suggest that it is possible to acquire the -e morpheme in the L1 after puberty, with beliefs influencing the processing of these forms. Furthermore, the results highlight the roles of use of and exposure to inclusive gender in the language in order for speakers to acquire and process it.

Keywords: gender-inclusive language; grammatical gender; morphosyntactic processing; language ideologies; Spanish morphology
Corresponding author: Ezequiel M. Durand-López, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC, USA, E-mail:

Appendix A: List of experimental sentences.

  1. Mencionan que Juan, Silvia, Pedro y María están contentos/contentes en su trabajo.

  2. Comentan que Martín, Ana, Mateo y Juana están cansados/cansades por la mañana.

  3. Saben que José, Lola, Luisa y Julia están casados/casades con sus parejas.

  4. Dicen que Juan, Nadia, Marcos y Rita están despiertos/despiertes por la noche.

  5. Piensan que Pablo, Lucía, Néstor y Sandra están celosos/celoses en la relación.

  6. Observan que Raúl, Carmen, Paulo y Luisa están enfermos/enfermes por la gripe.

  7. Notan que Juan, Luisa, Martín y Sandra están atentos/atentes a las instrucciones.

  8. Consideran que José, Rita, Juan y Julia están cerrados/cerrades en su posición.

  9. Creen que Pablo, Juana, Raúl y María están nerviosos/nervioses por las elecciones.

  10. Ven que Pedro, Carmen, Mateo y Lucía están desnudos/desnudes en la playa.

  11. Ignoran que Marcos, Nadia, Néstor y Lola están molestos/molestes con la tarea.

  12. Opinan que Paulo, Ana, Martín y Silvia están bonitos/bonites en la imagen.

  13. Olvidan que Juan, María, Pablo y Sandra están metidos/metides en el crimen.

  14. Reportan que Néstor, Luisa, Raúl y Carmen están callados/callades en la clase.

  15. Entienden que Mateo, Rita, Luis y Nadia están abiertos/abiertes a la cooperación.

  16. Sienten que Martín, Juana, José y Rita están inquietos/inquietes por el futuro.

Appendix B: Sociolinguistic Questionnaire

Section A. Usage

  1. ¿Qué expresión es más probable que uses si estuvieras saludando a un grupo de personas de distintos géneros?

    What expression would you be most likely to use to greet a group of people of different genders?

    1. Hola a todos

    2. Hola a todas

    3. Hola a todos y todas

    4. Hola a todes

    5. Hola a todxs

    6. Hola a tod@s

    7. Hola a todas las personas

    8. Otra: ___________________

  2. Las Naciones Unidas define al lenguaje inclusivo como una manera de expresarse oralmente y por escrito sin referirse a un sexo, género social o identidad de género específicos. Se ha desarrollado una variedad de estrategias para el lenguaje inclusivo en la sociedad. ¿Qué estrategias para el lenguaje inclusivo escuchado/leído alguna vez? Marca todas las respuestas que te corresponden.

    The United Nations defines inclusive language as a “way of expressing oneself orally and in writing without discriminating against sex, social gender or gender identity”. A variety of strategies for inclusive language in society have been developed. What language strategies do you even know? Mark all the answers that apply to you.

    1. Usar el masculino y el femenino a la vez (todos y todas)

    2. -x (todxs)

    3. -e (todes)

    4. @ (tod@s)

    5. Otro: ______________

    6. No conozco ninguna de estas opciones.

  3. ¿Qué estrategia te parece mejor para el lenguaje inclusivo?

    What do you think is the best strategy for inclusive language?

    1. Usar el masculino y el femenino a la vez (todos y todas)

    2. -x (todxs)

    3. -e (todes)

    4. @ (tod@s)

    5. Otro: ______________

    6. No estoy a favor del lenguaje inclusivo.

  4. Si has escuchado/leído lenguaje inclusivo en tu vida por parte de otras personas, ¿En qué ámbitos lo has encontrado?

    If you have encountered the use of inclusive language, in what contexts have you encountered it?

    1. En contextos académicos

    		 in academic contexts

    1. Con amigos

    		 with friends

    1. En la familia

    		 with familia

    1. En el trabajo

    		 at work

    1. Otros contextos:_________________

    		 other contexts

    1. Nunca he escuchado/leído usos del lenguaje inclusivo

    • I have never encountered uses of inclusive language

  5. ¿En qué medios has escuchado/leído el lenguaje inclusivo? In which modes have you encountered inclusive language?

    1. En la escritura

    		 in writing

    1. En el habla

    		 in speech

    1. Nunca he escuchado/leído usos del lenguaje inclusivo

    • I have never encountered uses of inclusive language

  6. ¿Usas el lenguaje inclusivo en tu vida? (puede ser mucho o solo un poco)

    Do you use inclusive language in your life? (it can be a lot or just a little)

    1. Sí

    		 yes

    1. No

    		 no

    If YES, participant will continue to question 7 of this section.

    If NO, participant will skip to section B.

  7. ¿Qué estrategias sueles usar para el lenguaje inclusivo? Marca todas las respuestas que te corresponden.

    What strategies do you usually use for inclusive language? Mark all the answers that apply to you.

    1. Usar el masculino y el femenino a la vez (todos y todas)

    2. -x (todxs)

    3. -e (todes)

    4. @ (tod@s)

    5. Otro: ______________

  8. ¿Qué estrategia usas con más frecuencia?

    Which strategy do you use most frequently?

    1. Usar el masculino y el femenino a la vez (todos y todas)

    2. -x (todxs)

    3. -e (todes)

    4. -@ (tod@s)

    5. Otro: ______________

  9. ¿Con qué frecuencia usas el lenguaje inclusivo?

    How often do you use inclusive language?

    1. Siempre que puedo

    		 whenever possible

    1. Con mucha frecuencia

    		 frequently

    1. A veces

    		 sometimes

    1. Con poca frecuencia

    		 rarely

    1. Nunca

    		 never

  10. ¿En qué ámbitos usas el lenguaje inclusivo? Marca todas las respuestas que te corresponden.

    In what environments do you use inclusive language? Mark all the answers that apply to you

    1. En contextos académicos

    		 in academic contexts

    1. Con amigos

    		 with friends

    1. En la familia

    		 with familia

    1. En el trabajo

    		 at work

    1. Otros contextos:_________________

    		 other contexts

  11. ¿Usas la -e (ej. todes) como forma de lenguaje inclusivo?

    Do you use the -e as a form of inclusive language?

    1. Sí

    		 yes

    1. No

    		 no

    If YES, participant will continue to question 12 of this section.

    If NO, participant will skip to section B.

  12. ¿Con qué frecuencia escribes o hablas con la -e (ej. todes) del lenguaje inclusivo?

    How frequently do you use the -e as an inclusive language form?

    1. Siempre que puedo

    		 whenever possible

    1. Con mucha frecuencia

    		 frequently

    1. A veces

    		 sometimes

    1. Con poca frecuencia

    		 rarely

    1. Nunca

    		 never

  13. ¿Con qué frecuencia escuchas o lees la -e (ej. todes) del lenguaje inclusivo?

    How frequently do you use the -e as an inclusive language form?

    1. Siempre que puedo

    		 whenever possible

    1. Con mucha frecuencia

    		 frequently

    1. A veces

    		 sometimes

    1. Con poca frecuencia

    		 rarely

    1. Nunca

    		 never

  14. ¿En qué ámbitos usas la -e (ej. todes) del lenguaje inclusivo?

    In what contexts do you use the -e for inclusive language?

    1. En contextos académicos

    		 in academic contexts

    1. Con amigos

    		 with friends

    1. En la familia

    		 with familia

    1. En el trabajo

    		 at work

    1. Otros contextos: ____________

    		 other contexts

Section B. Beliefs Questionnaire

  1. Estoy a favor del lenguaje inclusivo.

    ‘I am in favor of inclusive language.’

  2. Con práctica, se puede aprender a usar el lenguaje inclusivo.

    ‘With practice, you can learn to use inclusive language.’

  3. No se necesita el lenguaje inclusivo porque el masculino género (ej. todos) ya incluye a todas las personas.

    ‘Inclusive language is not necessary, because the generic masculine already includes all people.’

  4. El uso de lenguaje inclusivo es gramaticalmente incorrecto.

    ‘The use of inclusive language is grammatically incorrect.’

  5. El uso de la -e (ej. todes) del lenguaje inclusivo es gramaticalmente incorrecto.

    ‘The use of -e for inclusive language is grammatically incorrect.’

  6. Es difícil comprender cuando las otras personas usan el lenguaje inclusivo.

    It is difficult to understand inclusive language when other people use it.

  7. Es difícil escribir/hablar usando el lenguaje inclusivo.

    ‘It is difficult to use inclusive language when speaking.’

  8. Siento que tardo más en leer cuando se usa una palabra con la -e del lenguaje inclusivo.

    ‘I feel that I take longer to read words that use the inclusive -e.’

Section C. Demographics

  1. ¿En qué año naciste?

    What year were you born?

  2. ¿Cuál es tu género?

    What is your gender?

  3. ¿En qué país hispanohablante has vivido la mayor parte de tu vida?

    Where were you born?

  4. ¿Hablas una lengua aparte del español? Si es que sí, indica la lengua y tu nivel.

    Do you speak a language other than Spanish? If so, indicate the language and your level.

  5. ¿Qué nivel de educación has alcanzado?

    What is the highest level of education you have reached?

  6. ¿A qué clase social dirías que perteneces?

    What socioeconomic group would you say you below to?

Appendix C: Participant demographic and inclusive language use tables

Table C1:

Gender breakdown of inclusive language users versus non-users.

Inclusive language use Male Female Trans feminine Gender fluid
Non-user 14 8 0 1
User 4 9 1 0
Table C2:

Inclusive language users’ reported frequency of use by gender.

Reported frequency of use Male Female Trans feminine Gender fluid
As much as possible 4 9 1 0
Frequently 1 0 0 0
Sometimes 5 1 0 0
Infrequently 3 0 1 0
Table C3:

Inclusive language users’ reported frequency of use by country.

Reported frequency of use Argentina Peru Chile Bolivia
As much as possible 2 0 0 1
Frequently 1 0 0 0
Sometimes 5 1 0 0
Infrequently 3 0 1 0

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Published Online: 2025-09-03
Published in Print: 2025-09-25

© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Research Articles
  3. Generational change in the conditioning of coda /r/ manner of articulation in Lorain Puerto Rican Spanish
  4. An initial approximation of the indexical field of creaky voice in Chilean Spanish
  5. A continuous and categorical approach to the L2 acquisition of Spanish voiced stop allophones
  6. Testing competing accounts of adjective-noun code-switching in a Spanish-English written corpus
  7. Gender-inclusive morphology in Spanish: learnability, processing costs, and use
  8. Exploring factors that influence the accusative/dative experiencer alternation in Spanish psych verbs: data from three types of Spanish–English bilinguals
  9. Perception of Spanish diphthong /ei/ by second language and heritage speakers of Spanish: findings from two perception tasks
https://doi.org/10.1515/shll-2025-2013
Keywords for this article
gender-inclusive language; grammatical gender; morphosyntactic processing; language ideologies; Spanish morphology

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Research Articles
  3. Generational change in the conditioning of coda /r/ manner of articulation in Lorain Puerto Rican Spanish
  4. An initial approximation of the indexical field of creaky voice in Chilean Spanish
  5. A continuous and categorical approach to the L2 acquisition of Spanish voiced stop allophones
  6. Testing competing accounts of adjective-noun code-switching in a Spanish-English written corpus
  7. Gender-inclusive morphology in Spanish: learnability, processing costs, and use
  8. Exploring factors that influence the accusative/dative experiencer alternation in Spanish psych verbs: data from three types of Spanish–English bilinguals
  9. Perception of Spanish diphthong /ei/ by second language and heritage speakers of Spanish: findings from two perception tasks
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