The challenge of dissecting the frog: cartoonists analyze their creative process

5.1.1 Detailing the preference for specific resources

After completing the table provided in Q4, those cartoonists who manifested a preference for certain resources were asked to explain why. Out of the 39 cartoonists who answered this question (Q5), 8 (20 %) affirmed not being able to provide a reason or gave an unrelated response. The other 31 responses were classified into five groups. Ranging the responses from the least to the most frequent ones, 8 % referred to the audience, newspaper and context (e.g., “People’s reaction to my cartoons!! and the era I am in,” Luc, France), while another 8 % considered the topic and the cartoonists’ motivation. In 11 % of the answers, cartoonists said that the resources used were adapted to their style or to their conception of humor (e.g., “Because it corresponds to my character,” Hachfeld, Germany; “Because these resources, little by little, become part of a personal language. It’s like using consonants and vowels,” Jarape, Colombia). In 17 % of the cases, the professionals stated that they could not mention specific resources because they varied depending on their intention. An example of this comes from the Dutch cartoonist Van Dam: “It depends on the ‘brainwave’, the idea that suddenly comes into your mind when you’re thinking about a subject/topic/theme. Mostly after you get this idea you realize what kind of humor-resources you’re using.”

The majority of the cartoonists that answered this question (56 %) gave an explanation by referring to the main mechanism of incongruity or by mentioning specific resources. An example of the former is Karry’s response:

When creating, I have to be well informed on the subject. My creative process consists of hunting for figures or elements that have nothing to do with the subject, but that, despite being illogical, they present a logic of their own that produces the visual spark when connecting them. (Peru)

Regarding the reference to specific resources, the reason for using paradox brings Agra (Spain/Venezuela) and Jean-Luc Coudray (France) together, who highlight its thought-provoking quality: “I frequently use contradictions, paradoxes, because it is easier for me to create humorous situations from the confrontation of opposites. To create a confusion, so that once it’s triggered, restlessness remains in the observer” (Agra). “I remain in the paradox because I want my ideas to be meaningful and not just funny. It is not a question of making people laugh but of using humor to think, by means of surprise, of perplexity” (Jean-Luc Coudray).

Cartoonists’ responses often refer to general attributes they recognize in the resources used. For instance, “Irony, sarcasm, contradiction, and exaggeration are tools every satirist uses. This is how we make our points, by proving through reason the other side is wrong” (Morin, US); “I think that exaggeration reaches people very well and cultural references are appreciated because they create identification with those who see my work” (Triana, Colombia). Notwithstanding, cartoonists also reflect on the resources used while referring to their own style:

Irony and sarcasm, when used with a certain subtlety, are a clever game for me. Allusions allow me to satirize about a social fact. Exaggerating the characters’ expressions helps me create a humorous effect. Caricatures are of great entertainment for me and cause surprise and fascination in people. If a joke about a particular event is added, the result can be interesting. (Junior, Argentina)

Reflecting on that, I see that in Catalonia there is a humorous culture in which sarcasm and irony are used a lot, it must be something cultural. On the other hand, personally, I see that I use a lot of contradiction and paradox, often visual. Another resource that works for me is exaggeration, either in the script or in the drawing with very grotesque caricatures of the characters. And cultural references facilitate the most immediate connection with the reader, who recognizes those references in the cartoon. (Kap, Spain)

5.2.1 Conception of humor

Focusing on the first question, the formulation presupposed a conception of humor which is worth analyzing. As presented in the literature review, the most common conception links humor to funniness. This is also the case for many cartoonists, and some of them felt the need to clarify it when they did not consider their work as funny and framed it instead within “satire,” or “dark humor.” Marlene Pohle’s and Flavien’s statements are in line with this: “In satire, therefore, humor is relative” (Marlene Pohle, Argentina). “I am not a humorous cartoonist; my drawings are not purely ‘funny’. Let’s say that, mainly, the ‘humorous component’ of my cartoons lies in dark humor, cynicism and the absurd” (Flavien, France).

The notion of “serious humor” (Flores 2000; also Cross 2011) is particularly relevant in this context, since it can condense motives beyond entertainment, such as criticism and provocation. Satire and dark humor are effective tools to raise awareness and stimulate critical thinking.

Other conceptions can be identified in a few cartoonists: humor as “subjective” and humor related to wit and cleverness. The idea that humor is useful to reduce a negative effect due to criticisms – in line with a rhetorical approach as mentioned above – is marginal. The only case is Tom’s assertion: “Humor is for sweetening the message” (Netherlands). In a few responses, such as Morin’s or Zyglis’s (see below), a combination of some of the aforementioned perspectives can be identified. “My job is to make a point using graphic satire. Humor is subjective so I do not concern myself with it. The cartoon must make a point and that’s all” (Jim Morin, US).

Humor is not essential to my work, but it is often central to it. On topics of tragedy and death, humor is often inappropriate – occasionally dark humor can work. The tone of the cartoon can adapt to the topic or message. But when humor is employed, it can often be a different type of humor, such as wit or cleverness. Laugh-out-loud humor is not always the intention. (Adam Zyglis, US)

Another type of response – though extremely rare – that could be linked to the conception of humor is the fact of not being systematic. This prevents authors from providing personal features. A good (and humorous) example of this perspective is Rousso’s:

If I could identify the humorous component of my cartoons, it would mean that it could be identified by certain traits. If it could be identified by ‘constants’ it would be reproducible as needed, it would be trivialized, it would then be so contrary to the trait of humor whose dazzle can sometimes surprise … even its author! (Rousso, France)

5.2.2 Theme

When referring to “the humorous component” in their work (Q1), a quarter of the cartoonists mentioned themes: the news, politicians, characters, tragedies. This often helped them precise the subgenre of cartoons they create, based on the news and/or political events. The fact of considering tragedies, as it is the case in some answers, is due to the will to distance themselves from a conception of humor linked to funniness (see Zyglis’s response presented above). Riham’s answer associates the themes she addresses with her personal style: “When in my cartoons I address women’s subjects such as violence” (Riham, Morocco).

5.2.3 Cartoonist’s motivation

In a quarter of the responses to Q1, cartoonists referenced their motivation: mainly to amuse, or to deride, denounce, and alert. Sometimes, these motivations were linked to a particular conception of humor, either as funny or as serious humor. Gilmar’s response reflects an opposition between these two types of humor: “When I do it simply to entertain, without a heavier burden of social criticism” (Gilmar, Brazil). On the other hand, another cartoonist’s response suggests that amusement is possible even in subjects that are typically considered serious or satirical: “I try to make people laugh (or smile) on all subjects, even the serious ones” (A cartoonist from France). When mentioning a playful motivation, it is usually addressed to amuse the readership (e.g., Gilmar) and only rarely the author himself: “If I laugh while doing it” (Ballouhey, France).

In the case of a more oriented satirical motivation, responses included: to deride, criticize, and unmask: “There is not always a humorous component. Humor comes from the offbeat vision of news that sheds light on something wrong with it” (Delucq, France), “I think I have a way of ridiculing my characters by accentuating their faults” (Placide, France).

In his response to Q1, Matador’s perspective on the role of a cartoonist’s work is noteworthy. He suggested that a cartoonist’s work serves as a reflection of reality, highlighting the ability to capture a particular situation or character worthy of caricature: “I believe that the reflection of reality, the caricature is not made by the cartoonist but rather by the victim or the environment” (Matador, Colombia).

Cartoonist’s motivation is marginal in response to Q3 and fits within the patterns already described. The next two examples focus on the cartoonist’s goal and ability to make people think and capture their attention.

Humor is inherent in human beings, we can laugh, smile, but fundamentally think; if a humorous situation makes us think, then we have achieved the objective that is not only the mechanical act of laughing. To achieve this, cartoonists use tools such as drawing and texts that help transmit an idea in the correct way. (A cartoonist from Peru)

Using both is a good way to create contrasts … which is powerful in making a cartoon funny and that, in turn, is needed to get entrance to the mind of the reader. (Collignon, Netherlands)

5.2.4 Personal style

The reference to a personal style is present in at least 20 % of the answers to each of both questions, including only those cases in which particular traits characterizing cartoonists’ work are considered. A few participants mentioned their stroke or the “big noses” from their characters, focusing on their drawing style. For example, in response to Q1, Lefred Thouron (France) said: “Mainly by the big noses. Even if the cartoon is not successful because the subject is misunderstood or the joke is average, there will always remain the big noses.” In response to Q3, Arcadio Esquivel (Costa Rica) referred to his style but in relation to where his cartoons were published: “The verbal (mode) is not to my liking because my cartoon is published outside my country and in other languages and it’s visual because I need to be understood without having to be read.” This link between a visual prevalence in cartoonists’ style and the need to be understood by an international audience is mentioned by a few cartoonists, such as Marlene Pohle from Argentina and Kristian from France.

5.2.5 Cartoon profiles

This category is identified in 23 % of the responses both to Q1 and Q3. Cartoonists mentioned subgenres of cartoons (caricatures, political cartoons, playful cartoons) and/or established differences among cartoons that imply distinct approaches due to their modal nature (visual, verbal, multimodal).

I usually do political satire without words, I think that the graphic mode should predominate, because that way it can be perceived by any viewer, anywhere in the world. In observational humor, I use both verbal and graphic modes, just like in comic strips. (Miriam, Cuba)

As a cartoonist, I try to make the graphic (mode) prevail and explain itself, but frequently the text must complement it; sometimes, the text is what defines the humorous situation. When a good drawing is enough by itself, I feel fulfilled. But in political cartoons, it is difficult to obtain that result, and due to the changing, convoluted and immediate nature of politics, the text becomes necessary. (Agra, Spain/Venezuela)

5.2.6 Modes

The use of semiotic modes, whether visual, verbal, or both, is frequently mentioned in responses to both Q1 (44 % of the cases) and Q3 (89 %). The reference to both semiotic modes is notably higher in Q3, as it could be expected given that the question specifically asked about the ways in which visual and verbal modes are utilized. This dimension was always discussed in relation to a different aspect, as demonstrated in Miriam’s and Agra’s last examples.

5.2.7 Cartoon attributes

A few cartoonists considered at least one cartoon attribute – 19 % in the answers to Q1 and 37 % in the answers to Q3. Responses addressing attributes can refer to cartoonists’ perspectives on their personal style or to generic traits that they identify in cartoons. Attributes have been grouped in four categories, as informed in Table 1. Two of these categories refer to the visual mode while the other two are more general.

The first category focuses on cartoon funniness and effectiveness, which is related to being rapidly and easily understood, concise and simple. Kristian’s response exemplifies a reference to a personal style with regard to simplicity as a relevant feature of cartoons: “Move towards the greatest possible simplicity” (Kristian, France) while Aurel’s excerpt refers both to funniness and effectiveness as a general requirement of cartoons: “The cartoon is a single and unique message, using two media: drawing and writing. Regardless of the reading direction of the cartoon (text first, drawing first then text …), altogether must create a whole and be as funny, effective (fast reading) as possible” (Aurel, France).

The second category refers to the fact that cartoons present a concept, an idea, a message. Cambon’s answer is an example of the last two categories since it combines the importance of an idea or message in cartoons with funniness: “Either the idea of the cartoon is conveyed by the drawing itself, or the idea needs a verbal support, a caption, a dialogue, to become funny” (Cambon, France).

The third and fourth categories address visual attributes of cartoons, which are more frequent in Q3 than in Q1. The third category encompasses the idea – either explicitly or indirectly – that an ideal cartoon is solely visual. An example is Agra’s excerpt: “When a good drawing is enough by itself, I feel fulfilled.” Many French cartoonists (and a Spanish speaking one) quote the famous phrase “A picture is worth a thousand words” to support their visual preference. It has also appeared once as a way to avoid providing precisions about how visual and verbal modes are used (Q3): “I think a picture is worth a thousand words and I take the liberty of referring you to my blog” (Trax, France).

The fourth category groups four different attributes that cartoonists conferred on visual cartoons. One of these features – which has already been linked to a personal style – is that wordless cartoons are more international. They are also considered – compared to multimodal cartoons – to have a stronger impact and to be more appealing to the readership. Finally, a few cartoonists argued that solely visual cartoons are difficult to create when addressing political issues. Phil’s and Gai’s answers combine two of these attributes: “For me, a good gag or press cartoon is a cartoon that needs no text, so everyone can understand it without translation. It’s not always doable, especially in press cartoons” (Phil, France). “If possible, I try to avoid the verbal (mode), I think it’s generally easier and more restricted in scope. My ideal is to focus on the visual (mode), as it is more universal, challenging, appealing to the reader. But many times, I have to settle for a mixture of both resources, or go back and forth between them” (Gai, Chile). Agra’s response, already quoted, claims that words are often needed in political cartoons, due to the nature of politics: changing, convoluted and immediate. Section 6 will address these findings.

5.2.8 Cartoon functioning

In response to Q1, 38 % of the cartoonists took into account Cartoon functioning by mentioning humorous mechanisms, either the basic incongruity underlying humor or specific resources, such as metaphor, irony, exaggeration, pun and the absurd. They referred to incongruity in terms of opposition, dichotomy, contradiction, contrast, surprise, the unusual and the unexpected. A few examples are: “I try to have a biased look, from an unusual angle, to present an ordinary reality in an unusual way” (Philippe Côté, Canada), “An unexpected perspective, contradiction between what someone in the cartoon says and what the cartoon shows …” (Arendt Van Dam, Netherlands). Among French speaking cartoonists, décalage (gap, mismatch, discrepancy) is a frequent term. “In the visual or the verbal discrepancy, or both. A visual situation that is inappropriate to the context. A gap between the text and the situation or the characters depicted, or a gap between text and image” (Aurel, France).

The reference to incongruity or to specific resources is also present in response to Q3 although in a smaller proportion. Modal relations arise when cartoonists are invited to make the use of words and images explicit (Q3). In line with the literature review (see, for instance, El Refaie 2013; Pedrazzini and Scheuer 2019), three categories mentioned by cartoonists are: visual prevalence, verbal prevalence, and complementarity (rarely contradiction).

Visual prevalence is present in 37 % of the responses. Many cartoonists express their willingness to use as few words as possible, which is in line with the belief that an ideal cartoon is solely visual. Flavien (France) takes position within this perspective:

It is claimed that there are two schools of satirical drawing: one of text and one of drawing. I am clearly part of the second school. I use very little text (bubbles and dialogues, titles, captions, etc.). Most of my drawings – and particularly those that I consider most successful – do not have any of these verbal components. Frequently, I tend to consider that the words of certain drawings interfere with the image, are superfluous or even worse, redundant. However, a drawing without text is not “mute.” Drawing is a form of writing, it speaks, and it doesn’t need words to do it. It has been claimed that “an image is worth a thousand words,” and I think that’s quite true. So I try to avoid doing both at the same time. That being said, I would like to point out that what I am saying is valid for me but not for everyone. It’s a choice. Many cartoonists who use text are obviously excellent!

A few cartoonists also granted that “sometimes words carry the message,” even if “best cartoons are all visual” (Danziger, US). Visual prevalence is often considered to be a bigger challenge: “My production, mainly, is made of drawings without text. Here is an added difficulty because the gag must be in the action. The verbal (mode) is relatively easier, because it supports the image” (Harca, Spain).

Complementarity is mentioned by 22 % of the cartoonists, who referred to a “fine conjunction,” “equation,” or “harmony” between image and writing, and the need to avoid redundancy: “It is a fine conjunction of both. The verbal (mode) should not repeat the drawing, otherwise there is no surprise effect” (Coco, France). “An equation must be found where both the verbal and the visual (modes) have their usefulness; I try to avoid too dense bubbles: a good drawing should, in my opinion, be easily understood at first glance” (A cartoonist from France).

I try to complement them without redundancies, making them talk to each other. The text sometimes only contextualizes, at times I use the journalistic structure of the headline, sub-headline and drawing-text. I try to vary and always try to find new ways, giving priority to visual expression. (Chumbi, Argentina)

Sometimes the idea is born from a visual concept. Other times the idea is born from the writing. Each cartoon takes a different form. It can be a humorous visual metaphor or a clever narrative. The words and images need to work together in harmony no matter what type of concept is used. For instance, even in a visual concept, the few words used must help the message and not detract from the humor. (Adam Zyglis, US)

Verbal prevalence is alluded to by 14 % of the cartoonists. The visual mode is considered to take a secondary role, helping to understand or to lighten the writing. Many professionals from this group declared that puns (or verbal contradictions, for a few of them) play a very important role in their humor, and that their cartoons usually present a dialogue between two or more characters. Here is an example: “My cartoons are like puppets that establish a dialogue or monologue. Verbal humor is made of aphorisms, paradoxes, which collide two statements into one, creating short circuits” (Jean-Luc Coudray, France).

As stated in the category “Cartoon Profiles,” and in line with Zyglis’s answer presented above, even though some cartoonists tended to subscribe to a particular modal functioning, they acknowledged that cartoons might present either a visual/verbal prevalence or a complementarity depending on the intention, theme or modal affordances (Kress 2010). That is the case of Art Molero and Man:

I try to prioritize the visual (mode), and although I don’t consider myself a great draftsman, I admit that several times I have had to resort to the text to make the joke clearer. However, it depends on the work being done. I mean, many times, a topical joke requires the text to be understood. However, ‘the joke for the joke’, humor for humor’s sake, does not require text on many occasions. (Art Molero, Spain)

It is a mysterious alchemy to be analyzed. Basically, we can make press cartoons without words. We can also make politicians speak to make them say things that they think but don’t say in public. This is the principle of caricature, but instead of exaggerating the stroke, we exaggerate the speech. (Man, France)

5.2.9 Difficulty to explain/analyze

Nineteen percent of the cartoonists either expressed difficulty to explain the way in which they use the verbal and the visual components, or they preferred to avoid or reject the request to conceptualize it. Some examples are: “It is easier to do it than to describe it!” (Jarape, Colombia), “It is not really thought out, I do it instinctively. I don’t have a recipe” (Sondron, Belgium), “Frankly no. It’s like trying to explain why or how you breathe, whereas it’s more than natural: it’s a reflex. There you go, I answered …” (Lefred-Thouron, France). Very few of them (see, for instance, Man’s quotation above) used the term “alchemy” as a way of expressing a non-systematic or deliberate creation process.