Price Regulation and the Financing of Universal Services in Network Industries
-
Christian Jaag
Abstract
This article explores the complementary roles of price regulation and universal service regulation in network industries. It analyzes compensation for the universal service provider (USP) by public finances and a fund to which operators contribute. As long as the USP enjoys market power, price regulation may serve as a means to finance universal services. This implies allowing for price increases to compensate for the net cost of the universal service obligation. It releases competing operators or the general government budget from contributing to its financing but results in distorted pricing and reduced overall welfare due to inefficient entry. The analysis shows that current practices of costing and financing universal services may result in unintended market distortions. The article quantifies these effects and demonstrates how such distortions can be avoided.
References
Ambrosini, X., S.Breville, J.Cornée, and O.Klargaard. 2011. “Pricing Strategies in Regulated Markets – Innovative Pricing in the Postal Sector,” 12Competition and Regulation in Network Industries57–83.Suche in Google Scholar
Armstrong, M. 2008. “Access Pricing, Bypass and Universal Service in Post,” 7Review of Network Economics172–187.10.2202/1446-9022.1144Suche in Google Scholar
BEREC. 2011. “Work Programme 2012 BEREC Board of Regulators.”Suche in Google Scholar
Bergum, Kristin. 2009. “Calculating the Net Cost of the USO: A Practical Example from Norway,” in Michael A.Crew, Paul R.Kleindorfer, and James I.Campbell, eds. Handbook of Worldwide Postal Reform. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Suche in Google Scholar
Billette de Villemeur, E., H.Cremer, B.Roy, and J.Toledano. 2003. “Optimal Pricing and Price-Cap Regulation in the Postal Sector,” 24Journal of Regulatory Economics49–62.Suche in Google Scholar
Bilette de Villemeur, E., H. Cremer, F.Boldron, and B.Roy. 2008. “Worksharing: A Calibrated Model,” 7Review of Networks Economics272–293.10.2202/1446-9022.1149Suche in Google Scholar
Boldron, F., C.Borsenberger, D.Joram, S.Lecou, and B.Roy. 2009. “A Dynamic and Endogenous Approach for Financing USO in a Liberalized Environment,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Progress in the Competitive Agenda in the Postal and Delivery Sector. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Suche in Google Scholar
Borsenberger, Claire, HelmuthCremer, PhilippeDe Donder, DenisJoram, and BernardRoy. 2010. “Funding the Cost of Universal Service in a Liberalized Postal Sector,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Heightening Competition in the Postal and Delivery Sector. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Suche in Google Scholar
CERP. 2008. “Guidelines for Calculating the Net Cost of the Universal Service Obligations.”Suche in Google Scholar
CERP. 2009. “Recommendation on Best Practices for Price Regulation.”Suche in Google Scholar
Cohen, Robert, CharlesMcBride, and John C.Panzar. 2010. “The Cost of the USO in the United States,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Heightening Competition in the Postal and Delivery Sector. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Suche in Google Scholar
Copenhagen Economics. 2008. “What Is the Cost of Post Danmark’s Universal Service Obligation?” Study on Behalf of the Danish Chamber of Commerce.Suche in Google Scholar
Copenhagen Economics. 2010. “Main Developments in the EU Postal Sector (2008–2010),” Study Commissioned by the European Commission (GD Internal Market).Suche in Google Scholar
Cremer, H., A.Grimaud, and J.-J.Laffont. 2000. “The Cost of Universal Service in the Postal Sector,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Current Directions in Postal Reform. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.10.1007/978-1-4615-4481-4_3Suche in Google Scholar
D’Alcantara, G., and B.Amerlynck. 2006. “Profitability of the Universal Service Postal Operator under Entry with Economies of Scale in Collection and Delivery,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Progress Toward Liberalization of the Postal and Delivery Sector. New York, NY: Springer.Suche in Google Scholar
Dietl, H., U.Trinkner and R.Bleisch. 2005. “Liberalization and Regulation of the Swiss Letter Market,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Regulatory and Economic Challenges in the Postal and Delivery Sector. New York: Kluwer.Suche in Google Scholar
ERGP. 2011. “Draft Report on Net Cost Calculation and Evaluation of a Reference Scenario.”Suche in Google Scholar
Fève, F., J.-P.Florens, and S.Richard. 2006. “Microeconomic Demand Modelling for Price Elasticities,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Liberalization of the Postal and Delivery Sector. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Suche in Google Scholar
Friedli, B., C.Jaag, D.Krähenbühl, O.Nielsen, S.Pihl, and U.Trinkner. 2006. “Consumer Preferences and Last Mile Pricing in the Postal Sector,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Liberalization of the Postal and Delivery Sector. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Suche in Google Scholar
Frontier Economics. 2008. “Net Costs of Elements of the Universal Service,” Report Prepared for Postcomm.Suche in Google Scholar
Frontier Economics. 2013. “Study on the Principles Used to Calculate the Net Costs of the Postal USO,” Report Prepared for the European Commission.Suche in Google Scholar
Gautier, A., and D.Paolini. 2011. “Universal Service Financing in Competitive Postal Markets: One Size Does Not Fit All,” 10Review of Network Economics 1–30.10.2202/1446-9022.1227Suche in Google Scholar
Jaag, C. 2007. “Liberalization of the Swiss Letter Market and the Viability of Universal Service Obligations,” 143Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics261–282.10.1007/BF03399240Suche in Google Scholar
Jaag, C., U.Trinkner, J.Lisle, N.Waghe, and E.Van Der Merwe. 2011. “Practical Approaches to USO Costing and Financing,” 12 Competition and Regulation in Network Industries, Intersentia108–108.Suche in Google Scholar
Jaag, C.2011a. “Entry Deterrence and the Calculation of the Net Cost of Universal Service Obligations,” 10Review of Network Economics1–19.10.2202/1446-9022.1189Suche in Google Scholar
Jaag, C.2011b. “What Is an Unfair Burden? Compensating the Net Cost of Universal Service Provision,” 10Review of Network Economics 1–32.10.2202/1446-9022.1225Suche in Google Scholar
Jaag, C., and H.Dietl. 2011. “Postal and Regulatory Reform in Intermodal Competition,” in KristianSund and DerekOsborn, eds. The Future is in the Post, Vol. 2: Perspectives on Transformation in the Postal Industry. Faringdon: Libri Publishing.10.2139/ssrn.2488436Suche in Google Scholar
Jaag, C., and U.Trinkner. 2011. “The Interaction between Universal Service Costing and Financing in the Postal Sector: A Calibrated Approach,” 39Journal of Regulatory Economics89–110.10.1007/s11149-010-9138-8Suche in Google Scholar
Jaag, C., M.Koller, and U.Trinkner. 2009. “Calculating the Cost of the USO – The Need for a Global Approach,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Progress in the Competitive Agenda in the Postal and Delivery Sector. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Suche in Google Scholar
Kleindorfer, P.R., and Z.Szirmay. 2009. “Pricing Practice in the Postal Industry: Current Approaches and Challenges Under Liberalization,” Research paper, INSEAD & Roland Berger.10.2139/ssrn.1414308Suche in Google Scholar
Laffont, J.-J., and J.Tirole. 1990a. “The Regulation of Multiproduct Firms: Part I: Theory,” 43Journal of Public Economics1–36.Suche in Google Scholar
Laffont, J.-J., and J. Tirole. 1990b. “The Regulation of Multiproduct Firms: Part II: Applications to Competitive Environments and Policy Analysis,” 43Journal of Public Economics37–66.Suche in Google Scholar
Okholm, H.B., M.Winiarczyk, A.Moller, and C.Kastberg Nielsen. 2010. “Main Developments in the Postal Sector (2008–2010),” Report Commissioned by DG Internal Market.Suche in Google Scholar
Oxera. 2007. “Funding Universal Service Obligations in the Postal Sector,” Report Prepared for La Poste, De Post-La Poste, Hellenic Post, Poste Italiane, P&T Luxembourg, Correos, Magyar Posta, Cyprus Post, Poczta Polska.Suche in Google Scholar
Panzar, J. 2000. “A Methodology for Measuring the Costs of Universal Service Obligations,” 12Information Economics and Policy211–220.10.1016/S0167-6245(00)00013-5Suche in Google Scholar
Robinson, A. 2007. “A Review of Price Elasticity Models for Postal Products,” Pitney Bowes Background Paper 2007–01.Suche in Google Scholar
Tardiff, T.J., and W.E.Taylor. 2003. “Aligning Price Regulation with Telecommunications Competition,” 2Review of Network Economics 388–354.10.2202/1446-9022.1033Suche in Google Scholar
Trinkner, U., and M.Grossmann. 2006. “Forecasting Swiss Mail Demand,” in Michael A.Crew and Paul R.Kleindorfer, eds. Progress Toward Liberalization of the Postal and Delivery Sector. New York, NY: Springer.Suche in Google Scholar
Valletti, T., S.Hoernig, and P.Barros. 2002. “Universal Service and Entry: The Role of Uniform Pricing and Coverage Constraints,” 21Journal of Regulatory Economics169–190.Suche in Google Scholar
- 1
See, for example, Billette de Villemeur et al. (2003) for the postal sector and Tardiff and Taylor (2003) for telecommunications. For example, Laffont and Tirole (1990a, 1990b) discuss price regulation in multiproduct firms in general. CERP (2009) finds that there is no universal solution for postal price regulation. Postal regulators have to determine which price regulation mechanism (or combination of mechanisms) best suits their circumstances and objectives for their postal market.
- 2
The article does not weigh in on the current debate about the appropriate scope of the USO. See Jaag and Dietl (2011) for a discussion of how the USO might be adapted in the future.
- 3
See, for example, the recent report by Frontier Economics (2013) for the European Commission.
- 4
See Panzar (2000) and Cremer et al. (2000). Annex I of the Third Postal Directive defines the net cost calculation as follows: “The net cost of universal service obligations is any cost related to and necessary for the operation of the universal service provision. The net cost of universal service obligations is to be calculated, as the difference between the net cost for a designated universal service provider of operating with the universal service obligations and the same postal service provider operating without the universal service obligations.”
- 5
See Copenhagen Economics (2008), Bergum (2009), Frontier Economics (2008) and Cohen et al. (2010) for recent applications of the profitability cost approach in the postal sector. Jaag et al. (2011) discuss these approaches. The European Committee for Postal Regulation (CERP) has published guidelines for calculating the net cost of the USO in the EU, see CERP (2008). The European Regulators Group for Postal Services (ERGP) has issued a draft Report on net cost calculation and evaluation of a reference scenario, see ERGP (2011).
- 6
See BEREC (2011) for a discussion of current policy issues in telecommunications in the EU.
- 7
See Armstrong (2008) for an analysis of access pricing in the context of a USO.
- 8
See Jaag (2011b) for a discussion of various notions of an unfair burden.
- 9
The same rules for compensating the net cost also apply in the telecommunications sector; see Directive 97/33/EC on interconnection in telecommunications with regard to ensuring universal service and interoperability through application of the principles of Open Network Provision (ONP) and Directive 2002/22/EC (Universal Service Directive).
- 10
Article 1 of Directive 2002/39/EC, amending article 12 of the 97/67/EC Directive.
- 11
We refer to the incremental cost associated with serving a market as “incremental coverage cost” in the sense that it is the cost incurred when an operator extends its regional presence incrementally.
- 12
There is no general uniform pricing and affordability constraint in the model. In many countries, there are USO products which have to be delivered nationwide but are not subject to a uniformity or affordability constraint (e.g. bulk mail). We discuss scenarios with and without uniform pricing constraints to compare the respective competitive effects.
- 13
There is no reason for price differentiation within markets if the number of operators is same, because marginal costs do not vary across regions.
- 14
Transactional mail is often originated by recipients who choose to have a mail item delivered by the post instead of electronic alternatives. The importance of doorstep delivery for these customers is empirically demonstrated, for example, by Friedli et al. (2006). Due to the recipients’ preferences, also senders of direct mail highly value doorstep delivery compared with P.O. box delivery.
- 15
In the past, the postal USO generally called for uniform prices. With increased liberalization, this obligation has been relaxed in many countries. The Third Postal Directive even requires that any uniform tariff obligation be limited to single-piece items (mainly stamps and franked mail). Hence, the assumption of differentiated prices is plausible in the postal sector. Many postal operators effectively differentiate prices across geographical areas in their rebate system for large mailers.
- 16
In our model, it is the sequence of decisions that results in the incumbent always serving at equilibrium a larger proportion of the market. This sequence reflects that the incumbent operator has traditionally been serving all markets due to the USO.
- 17
Since the model is deterministic and there are no information asymmetries, the contributions to the fund just match the predetermined compensation.
- 18
For simplicity, it is assumed that there is no shadow cost of public funds.
- 19
See Copenhagen Economics (2010) for an overview.
- 20
These license requirements are inconsistent with the Third Postal Directive as competing postal companies other than the universal service provider cannot be required to deliver mail 5 days per week.
- 21
The Third Postal Directive does not impose a specific tax base for the compensation fund. The tax could also be based on profit, turnover or other variables (see, e.g. Gautier and Paolini, 2011, or Jaag and Trinkner, 2011).
- 22
In practice, the difficulty with a “pay-or-play” system is to define the balance between the provision of universal services and the reduction of the contribution to the fund. Here, we simplify by not differentiating between various degrees of universal service provision. Given the choice between providing full USO (together with the incumbent) and none, it is optimal for the entrant to “pay” and not to “play” in all scenarios discussed below.
- 23
Hence, it is assumed that demand supports prices such that USP is able to break even.
- 24
Recall that the specification exhibits no cross-side effects between regions on the demand or cost side.
- 25
- 26
This setting is typical for the postal sector in many countries where prices are subject to direct approval (e.g. in Switzerland) or price cap regulation.
- 27
We assume that only the USP’s prices are regulated, not the entrant’s.
- 28
The model calibration allows the market that actually supports such an equilibrium.
©2013 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin / Boston
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Relative Fault and Efficient Negligence: Comparative Negligence Explained
- Independent Directors and Shared Board Control in Venture Finance
- Ranking Ranking Rules
- Crime, Punishment and Tax
- Price Regulation and the Financing of Universal Services in Network Industries
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Relative Fault and Efficient Negligence: Comparative Negligence Explained
- Independent Directors and Shared Board Control in Venture Finance
- Ranking Ranking Rules
- Crime, Punishment and Tax
- Price Regulation and the Financing of Universal Services in Network Industries
