Abstract
It has been shown that animal spinal cord compression (using methods such as clips, balloons, spinal cord strapping, or calibrated forceps) mimics the persistent spinal canal occlusion that is common in human spinal cord injury (SCI). These methods can be used to investigate the effects of compression or to know the optimal timing of decompression (as duration of compression can affect the outcome of pathology) in acute SCI. Compression models involve prolonged cord compression and are distinct from contusion models, which apply only transient force to inflict an acute injury to the spinal cord. While the use of forceps to compress the spinal cord is a common choice due to it being inexpensive, it has not been critically assessed against the other methods to determine whether it is the best method to use. To date, there is no available review specifically focused on the current compression methods of inducing SCI in rats; thus, we performed a systematic and comprehensive publication search to identify studies on experimental spinalization in rat models, and this review discusses the advantages and limitations of each method.
Acknowledgments
This study is supported by the University of Malaya postgraduate research grant (PG 181-2015B) and the authors are grateful to the university for the provision of relevant online databases which are prerequisite to the successful accomplishment of the study.
Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
References
Allen, A. (1911). Surgery of experimental lesion of spinal cord equivalent to crush injury of fracture dislocation of spinal column: a preliminary report. J. Am. Med. Assoc. LVII, 878–880.10.1001/jama.1911.04260090100008Search in Google Scholar
Aslan, A., Cemek, M., Eser, O., Altunbaş, K., Buyukokuroglu, M.E., Cosar, M., Baş, O., Ela, Y., and Fidan H. (2009). Does dexmedetomidine reduce secondary damage after spinal cord injury? An experimental study. Eur. Spine J. 18, 336–344.10.1007/s00586-008-0872-xSearch in Google Scholar
Aziz, I., Che Ramli, M.D., Mohd Zain, N.S., and Sanusi, J. (2014). Behavioral and histopathological study of changes in spinal cord injured rats supplemented with Spirulina platensis. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2014, 871657.10.1155/2014/871657Search in Google Scholar
Behrmann, D.L., Bresnahan, J.C., Beattie, M.S., and Shah, B.R. (1992). Spinal cord injury produced by consistent mechanical displacement of the cord in rats: behavioral and histologic analysis. J. Neurotrauma 9, 197–217.10.1089/neu.1992.9.197Search in Google Scholar
Behrmann, D.L., Bresnahan, J.C., and Beattie, M.S. (1994). Modeling of acute spinal cord injury in the rat: neuroprotection and enhanced recovery with methylprednisolone, U-74006F and YM-14673. Exp. Neurol. 126, 61–75.10.1006/exnr.1994.1042Search in Google Scholar
Blight, A.R. (1991). Morphometric analysis of a model of spinal cord injury in guinea pigs, with behavioral evidence of delayed secondary pathology. J. Neurol. Sci. 103, 156–171.10.1016/0022-510X(91)90159-5Search in Google Scholar
Blight, A. (2000). Animal models of spinal cord injury. Top. Spinal Cord Injury Rehabil. 6, 1–13.10.1310/2XNY-A824-UCTF-EN4DSearch in Google Scholar
Bresnahan, J.C., Beattie, M.S., Stokes, B.T., and Conway, K.M. (1991). Three-dimensional computer-assisted analysis of graded contusion lesions in the spinal cord of the rat. J. Neurotrauma 8, 91–101.10.1089/neu.1991.8.91Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Bruce, J.C., Oatway, M.A., and Weaver, L.C. (2002). Chronic pain after clip-compression injury of the rat spinal cord. Exp. Neurol. 178, 33–48.10.1006/exnr.2002.8026Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Cheriyan, T., Ryan, D.J., Weinreb, J.H., Cheriyan, J., Paul, J.C., Lafage, V., Kirsch, T., and Errico, T.J. (2014). Spinal cord injury models: a review. Spinal Cord 52, 588–595.10.1038/sc.2014.91Search in Google Scholar PubMed
da Costa, E.S., Carvalho, A.L., Martinez, A.M., De-Ary-Pires, B., Pires-Neto, M.A., and de Ary-Pires, R. (2008). Strapping the spinal cord: an innovative experimental model of CNS injury in rats. J. Neurosci. Methods 170, 130–139.10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.01.004Search in Google Scholar
Erschbamer, M. (2007). Experimental spinal cord injury: development of protection and repair strategies in rats [thesis]. Department of Neurosciences, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. ISBN 978-91-7357-267-5.Search in Google Scholar
Faulkner, J.R., Herrmann, J.E., Woo, M.J., Tansey, K.E., Doan, N.B., and Sofroniew, M.V. (2004). Reactive astrocytes protect tissue and preserve function after spinal cord injury. J. Neurosci. 24, 2143–2155.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3547-03.2004Search in Google Scholar
Fukuda, S., Nakamura, T., Kishigami, Y., Endo, K., Azuma, T., Fujikawa, T., Tsutsumi, S., and Shimizu, Y. (2005). New canine spinal cord injury model free from laminectomy. Brain Res. Protoc. 14, 171–180.10.1016/j.brainresprot.2005.01.001Search in Google Scholar
Gruner, J.A., Yee, A.K., and Blight, A.R. (1996). Histological and functional evaluation of experimental spinal cord injury: evidence of a stepwise response to graded compression. Brain Res. 729, 90–101.10.1016/0006-8993(96)00366-6Search in Google Scholar
Jakeman, L.B., Guan, Z., Wei, P., Ponnappan, R., Dzwonczyk, R., Popovich, P.G., and Stokes, B.T. (2000). Traumatic spinal cord injury produced by controlled contusion in mouse. J. Neurotrauma 17, 299–319.10.1089/neu.2000.17.299Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Jazayeri, S.B., Firouzi, M., Zadegan, S.A., Saeedi, N., Pirouz, E., Nategh, M., Jahanzad, I., Ashtiani, A.M., Yazdi, A., and Karimi, M. (2012). The effect of timing of decompression on neurologic recovery and histopathologic findings after spinal cord compression in a rat model. J. Inj. Violence Res. 4, 86.Search in Google Scholar
Kaynar, M.Y., Hanci, M., Kafadar, A., Gümüştaş, K., Belce, A., and Çiplak, N. (1998). The effect of duration of compression on lipid peroxidation after experimental spinal cord injury. Neurosurg. Rev. 21, 117–120.10.1007/BF02389316Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kwon, B.K., Oxland, T.R., and Tetzlaff, W. (2002). Animal models used in spinal cord regeneration research. Spine 27, 1504–1510.10.1097/00007632-200207150-00005Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Lee, D.-H. and Lee, J.K. (2013). Animal models of axon regeneration after spinal cord injury. Neurosci. Bull. 29, 436–444.10.1007/s12264-013-1365-4Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Lim, J.-H., Jung, C.-S., Byeon, Y.-E., Kim, W.H., Yoon, J.-H., Kang, K.-S., and Kweon, O.-K. (2007). Establishment of a canine spinal cord injury model induced by epidural balloon compression. J. Vet. Sci. 8, 89–94.10.4142/jvs.2007.8.1.89Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
McDonough, A., Monterrubio, A., Ariza, J., and Martínez-Cerdeño, V. (2015). Calibrated forceps model of spinal cord compression injury. JoVE, 52318. http://doi.org/10.3791/52318.10.3791/52318Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Nesathurai, S., Graham, W.A., Mansfield, K., Magill, D., Sehgal, P., Westmoreland, S.V., Prusty, S., Rosene, D.L., and Sledge, J.B. (2006). Model of traumatic spinal cord injury in Macaca fascicularis: similarity of experimental lesions created by epidural catheter to human spinal cord injury. J. Med. Primatol. 35, 401–404.10.1111/j.1600-0684.2006.00162.xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
Plemel, J.R., Duncan, G., Chen, K.W., Shannon, C., Park, S., Sparling, J.S., and Tetzlaff, W. (2008). A graded forceps crush spinal cord injury model in mice. J. Neurotrauma 25, 350–370.10.1089/neu.2007.0426Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Poon, P.C., Gupta, D., Shoichet, M.S., and Tator, C.H. (2007). Clip compression model is useful for thoracic spinal cord injuries: histologic and functional correlates. Spine 32, 2853–2859.10.1097/BRS.0b013e31815b7e6bSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
Rahimi-Movaghar, V., Yazdi, A., Karimi, M., Mohammadi, M., Firouzi, M., Zanjani, L.O., and H. Nabian, M. (2008). Effect of decompression on complete spinal cord injury in rats. Int. J. Neurosci. 118, 1359–1373.10.1080/00207450701392340Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Rivlin, A. and Tator, C. (1978). Effect of duration of acute spinal cord compression in a new acute cord injury model in the rat. Surg. Neurol. 10, 38–43.Search in Google Scholar
Schmidt, C.E. and Leach, J.B. (2003). Neural tissue engineering: strategies for repair and regeneration. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 5, 293–347.10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.011303.120731Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Sharif-Alhoseini, M., and Rahimi-Movaghar, V. (2014). Animal models in traumatic spinal cord injury. Topics in Paraplegia. InTech. http://dx.doi. org/10.5772/57189.10.5772/57189Search in Google Scholar
Tarlov, I., Klinger, H., and Vitale, S. (1953). Spinal cord compression studies: I. experimental techniques to produce acute and gradual compression. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 70, 813.10.1001/archneurpsyc.1953.02320360128010Search in Google Scholar
Vanický, I., Urdzíková, L., Saganová, K., Cízková, D., and Gálik, J. (2001). A simple and reproducible model of spinal cord injury induced by epidural balloon inflation in the rat. J. Neurotrauma 18, 1399–1407.10.1089/08977150152725687Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Vaughn, C.N., Iafrate, J.L., Henley, J.B., Stevenson, E.K., Shlifer, I.G., and Jones, T.B. (2013). Cellular neuroinflammation in a lateral forceps compression model of spinal cord injury. Anat. Rec. 296, 1229–1246.10.1002/ar.22730Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Vijayaprakash, K.M. and Sridharan, N. (2013). An experimental spinal cord injury rat model using customized impact device: a cost-effective approach. J. Pharmacol. Pharmacother. 4, 211–213.10.4103/0976-500X.114607Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Watson, C., Paxinos, G., and Kayalioglu, G. (2009). The Spinal Cord: A Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation Text and Atlas (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic Press), ISBN 9780123742476.Search in Google Scholar
Witiw, C.D. and Fehlings, M.G. (2015). Acute spinal cord injury. J. Spinal Disord. Tech. 28, 202–210.10.1097/BSD.0000000000000287Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Young, W. (2000). Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Spinal Cord Injury Therapies. Neurobiology of Spinal Cord Injury. R. Kalb and S. Strittmatter, eds. (Totowa, NJ: Humana Press), pp. 241–276.10.1007/978-1-59259-200-5_11Search in Google Scholar
©2017 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Effect of acute stress on auditory processing: a systematic review of human studies
- Experimental spinal cord trauma: a review of mechanically induced spinal cord injury in rat models
- Brain metabolic DNA in memory processing and genome turnover
- Animal models of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy: optimal choices for the best outcomes
- Highway to thermosensation: a traced review, from the proteins to the brain
- Complex effects of apoplexy secondary to pituitary adenoma
- Regenerative peripheral neuropathic pain: novel pathological pain, new therapeutic dimension
- Possible role of biochemiluminescent photons for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-induced phosphenes and visual hallucinations
- Therapeutic potential of flavonoids in spinal cord injury
- Is daily replication necessary when sampling cortisol concentrations in association studies of children with autism spectrum disorder? A systematic review and discussion paper
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Effect of acute stress on auditory processing: a systematic review of human studies
- Experimental spinal cord trauma: a review of mechanically induced spinal cord injury in rat models
- Brain metabolic DNA in memory processing and genome turnover
- Animal models of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy: optimal choices for the best outcomes
- Highway to thermosensation: a traced review, from the proteins to the brain
- Complex effects of apoplexy secondary to pituitary adenoma
- Regenerative peripheral neuropathic pain: novel pathological pain, new therapeutic dimension
- Possible role of biochemiluminescent photons for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-induced phosphenes and visual hallucinations
- Therapeutic potential of flavonoids in spinal cord injury
- Is daily replication necessary when sampling cortisol concentrations in association studies of children with autism spectrum disorder? A systematic review and discussion paper