Bilingual development of theta in a child
-
Elena Babatsouli
Abstract
There are issues concerning the bilingual development of a marked consonant in the literature that need to be clarified. While it is known that input frequency has a facilitative effect on monolingual development, its effects on bilingual development are not clear. Here, a child’s dense, longitudinal speech data from age 2;7 to 3;11 are examined in order to study the bilingual development of a marked consonant, theta, in English and Greek. The results address several issues pertaining to monolingual and bilingual development. Theta development in the two languages is parallel: theta word-frequency reflects adult speech; theta vocabulary grows logarithmically; first accurate realizations occur in frequent words independently of their complexity; in contrast, complete acquisition first occurs in words of lower complexity independently of usage frequency; the acquisition level for all words remains at a low plateau level until ages 3;5 and 3;8, followed by a stage of acceleration of the logistic type until complete acquisition, at ages 3;10 and 3;11 for English and Greek, respectively. Because of the presence of two languages, there is a larger and more complex vocabulary across the two languages which facilitates earlier acquisition in the child than in respective monolingual norms.
9 Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank two anonymous reviewers for their comments.
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Appendix A
Realizations of English theta words at 2;7–2;9
| Words | Tokens | Accurate θ | Inaccurate θ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| both | 2 | bοʊʃʦ | bοʊʃ | ||
| Dorothy | 1 | dəɹəs.zɪ | |||
| mouth | 1 | maʊʃ | |||
| 2;7 | thank | 2 | sent | ʃɛnt | |
| Thomais (name) | 3 | somais (2) | ʃomais | ||
| through | 2 | tu (2) | |||
| throw | 1 | ʃɔʊ | |||
| Total: 7 | 12 |
| bathtub | 2 | dasbʌs | tasbʌs | ||
| birthday | 2 | bɜːʃdel | bɜːstel | ||
| mouth | 1 | maʊʃ | |||
| 2;8 | something | 3 | sʌmθɪ | ʦʌmsɪŋ | sʌmsɪ |
| thank | 2 | ʦen | ʃɛnʧ | ||
| thirsty | 1 | ʦɛːstɪ | |||
| throw | 1 | ʃoʊ | |||
| with | 1 | iʃ | |||
| Total: 8 | 13 |
| anything | 18 | eniʃɪ (5) | eniʃɪn (7) | eniʃɪŋ (2) | eniçɪŋ (4) | ||
| bath | 5 | ba:s (3) | bæʦ | baʃ | |||
| bathroom | 1 | basɹʊm | |||||
| 2;9 | birthday | 11 | bɛθteɪ (2) | bɛːstel (4) | bɜːʃdɛː (2) | bɛʃteɪ (2) | bɛːtɛl~ |
| clothes | 4 | tʰɔʊs (2) | tʰɔʊz | tʰɔʊa | |||
| mouth | 9 | maʊʃ (2) | maʊs (5) | maʊfs | mat | ||
| something | 2 | sa: | tʌmʦɪn | ||||
| thank | 1 | tɛŋc | |||||
| thing | 1 | si:n | |||||
| thirsty | 1 | ʃɛːstɪ | |||||
| Thomais (name) | 6 | ʃomais (4) | somais (2) | ||||
| three | 11 | si: (10) | ʦi: | ||||
| threw | 2 | su: | |||||
| throw | 1 | ʃɔʊ | fɔ | ||||
| with | 14 | vɪθ (3) | wɪʃ (3) | wɪs | vɪs (4) | lɪs | |
| vɪt | wɪ | ||||||
| Total: 15 | 87 |
Appendix B
Realizations of Greek theta words at 2;7
| Adult form | Tokens | Accurate θ | Inaccurate θ | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| a'liθça | 1 | aiʃa | ||||||
| 'iθeles | 1 | iʃeles | ||||||
| 'iɾθe | 6 | iʃe (4) | ise (2) | |||||
| 'iɾθes | 2 | iʃes (2) | ||||||
| θa | 49 | 2 | a (17) | ʃa (13) | ta (9) | sa (5) | fa (5) | |
| 'θalasa | 1 | ʃalaʃa | ||||||
| 'θia | 2 | ʃia | çia | |||||
| 'θeli | 12 | ʃɛli (4) | seli (3) | ʃeni | zli | seni | ||
| 2;7 | ||||||||
| tɛi | ʃei | |||||||
| 'θelis | 1 | selis | ||||||
| 'θelo | 35 | 4 | ʃelo (17) | selo (8) | telo (4) | elo (2) | ||
| θe'u | 1 | ʃɛu | ||||||
| θes | 2 | 1 | sɛə | |||||
| θi'mase | 1 | simase | ||||||
| θoma'is | 26 | 1 | ʃomais (19) | somais (4) | ʦomais | ʝomais | ||
| 'kαθise | 1 | tʰatisɛ | ||||||
| ka'θisi | 1 | tatisi | ||||||
| 'kaθome | 1 | taʃome | ||||||
| 'kaθode | 2 | taʃode (2) | ||||||
| cimi'θi | 13 | pimisi (5) | pimiʃi (5) | cimisi | miisi | fipimisi | ||
| cimi'θume | 2 | pimisume (2) | ||||||
| cimi'θo | 4 | pimiso (4) | ||||||
| ma'θeno | 1 | maseno | ||||||
| 'oɾθia | 1 | oɹsia | ||||||
| paɾami'θaci | 5 | paemisati | pamisati (3) | apamisati | ||||
| ɾθi | 8 | ʃi (6) | si (2) | |||||
| ɾθο | 2 | ʃo (2) | ||||||
| siko'θis | 1 | sitoʃis | ||||||
| psiθi'ɾizo | 2 | piʦiliʣo | piʦilizo | |||||
| Total: 28 | 184 | 8 |
Appendix C
Transliteration, orthography and glossary of Greek theta words (2;7–3;11)
| Adult surface form (IPA) | Transliteration (ISO-843) | Greek orthography | Glossary & grammar acronyms* |
|---|---|---|---|
| agaˈθaca | αgkathakia | αγκαθάκια | thorns (N Pl dim) |
| aˈɟiθes | αgkithes | αγκίθες | thorns (N Pl) |
| aˈθina | athīna | αθήνα | Athens (nm) |
| aˈθinas | athīnas | αθήνας | Athens (nm gen) |
| eˈsθanome | aisthanomai | αιςθάνομαι | feel (V 1 S) |
| aˈliθça | alīthia | αλήθεια | truth (N) |
| aliθiˈna | alīthina | αληθινά | trully (ADV) |
| aliθiˈno | alīthino | αληθινό | true (ADJ S ntr) |
| aliθiˈnos | alīthino | αληθινός | true (ADJ S ms) |
| ˈanθisan | anthisan | ανθίςαν | bloom (V 3 Pl past) |
| anθɾoˈpaci | anthrōpaki | ανθρωπάκι | human (N dim) |
| ˈanθɾopi | anthrōpoi | άνθρωποι | humans (N Pl) |
| ˈanθɾopos | anthrōpos | άνθρωπος | human (N S) |
| aˈnθɾopus | anthrōpoys | ανθρώπους | humans (N Pl acc) |
| aˈdiθeta | antitheta | αντίθετα | opposites (ADJ 3 Pl ntr) |
| apocimiˈθume | apokoimīthoyme | αποκοιμηθούμε | fall asleep (V 1 Pl) |
| apocimiˈθo | apokoimīthō | αποκοιμηθώ | fall asleep (V 1 S) |
| vaˈθça | vathia | βαθιά | deep (ADV) |
| vivlioˈθici | vivliothīkī | βιβλιοθήκη | bookcase (N) |
| voiˈθas | voīthas | βοηθάς | help (V 2 S) |
| voiˈθao | voīthaō | βοηθάω | help (V 1 S) |
| voˈiθia | voītheia | βοήθεια | help (N) |
| voˈiθise | voīthīse | βοήθηςε | help (V 2 S imp) |
| voˈiθises | voīthīses | βοήθηςες | help (V 2 S past) |
| voiˈθisi | voīthīsei | βοηθήςει | help (V 3 S) |
| voiˈθisis | voīthīseis | βοηθήςεις | help (V 2 S) |
| voiˈθisete | voīthīsete | βοηθήςετε | help (V 2 Pl) |
| vɾeˈθi | vrethei | βρεθεί | be found (V 3 S) |
| ʝeˈneθlia | genethlia | γενέθλια | birthday (N) |
| ʝeniˈθi | genīthei | γεννηθεί | be born (V 3 S) |
| ðeˈθikame | dethīkame | δεθήκαμε | be tied (V 1 Pl past) |
| ˈðoθe | dōthe | δώθε | this way (ADV) |
| elefθeˈɾia | eleftheria | ελευθερία | freedom (N) |
| ˈemaθa | ematha | έμαθα | learn (V 1 S past) |
| ˈemaθe | emathe | έμαθε | learn (V 3 S past) |
| ˈepaθe | epathe | έπαθε | suffer (V 3 S past) |
| eˈpiθeto | epitheto | επίθετο | last name (N) |
| ˈeɾθi | erthei | έρθει | come (V 3 S) |
| ˈeɾθis | ertheis | έρθεις | come (V 2 S) |
| ˈeɾθo | erthō | έρθω | come (V 1 S) |
| zestaˈθi | zestathei | ζεςταθεί | warm up (V 3 S) |
| zeˈstaθika | zestathīka | ζεςτάθηκα | warm up (V 1 S past) |
| zeˈstaθice | zestathīke | ζεςτάθηκε | warm up (V 3 S past) |
| ˈiθela | īthela | ήθελα | want (V 1 S past) |
| ˈiθeles | ītheles | ήθελες | want (V 2 S past) |
| iθopiˈi | īthopoioi | ηθοποιοί | actors (N) |
| ˈiɾθame | īrthame | ήρθαμε | come (V 1 Pl past) |
| ˈiɾθane | īrthane | ήρθανε | come (V 3 Pl past) |
| ˈiɾθate | īrthate | ήρθατε | come (V 2 Pl past) |
| ˈiɾθe | īrthe | ήρθε | come (V 3 S past) |
| ˈiɾθes | īrthes | ήρθες | come (V 2 S past) |
| θa | tha | θα | will (PRCL) |
| θaˈlakso | th'alaksō | θ'αλλάξω | change (V 1 S fut el) |
| ˈθalasa | thalassa | θάλαςςα | sea (N S) |
| ˈθalasas | thalassas | θάλαςςας | sea (N S gen) |
| θaˈnasi | thanasi | θανάςη | (nm) |
| ˈθamaste | tha'maste | θά'μαςτε | be (V 1 PL fut el) |
| θaˈnapsis | th'anapseis | θ'ανάψεις | turn on (V 2 S fut el) |
| θaˈnevi | th'anevei | θ'ανέβει | go up (V 3 S fut el) |
| θaˈniksi | th'anevei | θ'ανοίξει | open (V 3 S fut el) |
| ˈθaɾθi | tha'rthei | θα'ρθεί | come (V 3 S fut el) |
| ˈθaɾθis | tha'rtheis | θα'ρθείς | come (V 2 S fut el) |
| θaˈɾθite | tha'rtheis | θα'ρθείτε | come (V 2 Pl fut el) |
| ˈθaɾθete | tha'rthete | θά'ρθετε | come (V 2 Pl fut el) |
| θaɾˈθume | tha'rthoyme | θα'ρθούμε | come (V 1 Pl fut el) |
| θaɾˈθune | tha'rthoyne | θα'ρθούνε | come (V 3 Pl fut el) |
| θaˈɾθο | tha'rthete | θα'ρθω | come (V 1 S fut el) |
| ˈθaɾçese | tha'rchesai | θα’ρχεςαι | come (V 2 S fut el) |
| ˈθaɾçete | tha'rchetai | θα’ρχεται | come (V 3 S fut el) |
| ˈθase | tha'rthete | θά'ςαι | be (V 2 S fut el) |
| ˈθaçis | tha'cheis | θα'χεις | have (V 2 S fut el) |
| ˈθaxo | tha'chō | θα'χω | have (V 1 S fut el) |
| ˈθapsume | thapsoyme | θάψουμε | bury (V 1 Pl) |
| ˈθeatɾo | theatro | θέατρο | theater (N S) |
| ˈθia | theia | θεία | aunt (N S) |
| ˈθeli | thelei | θέλει | wants (V 3 S) |
| ˈθelis | theleis | θέλεις | want (V 2 S) |
| ˈθelete | thelete | θέλετε | want (V 3 Pl) |
| ˈθelume | theloyme | θέλουμε | want (V 1 Pl) |
| ˈθelun | theloyn | θέλουν | want (V 3 Pl) |
| ˈθelune | theloyne | θέλουνε | want (V 3 Pl) |
| ˈθelo | thelō | θέλω | want (V 1 S) |
| θeˈos | theos | θεός | god (N S) |
| θeˈu | theoy | θεού | god (N S gen) |
| θeɾˈmometɾo | thermometro | θερμόμετρο | thermometer (N S) |
| ˈθesi | thesī | θέςη | seat (N S) |
| θes | θές | θές | want (V 2 S abr) |
| ˈθici | thīkī | θήκη | case (N S) |
| ˈθoɾivo | thoryvo | θόρυβο | noise (N Sacc) |
| ˈθoɾivos | thoryvos | θόρυβος | noise (N S nom) |
| θiˈmame | thymamai | θυμάμαι | remember (V 1 S) |
| θiˈmase | thymasai | θυμάςαι | remember (V 2 S) |
| θimiˈθite | thymītheite | θυμηθείτε | remember (V 2 Pl fut) |
| θiˈmiθika | thymīthīka | θυμήθηκα | remember (V 1 S past) |
| θiˈmisis | thymīseis | θυμήςεις | remember (V 2 S) |
| θiˈmomaste | thymomaste | θυμόμαςτε | remember (V 1 Pl) |
| θimoˈmenos | thymōmenos | θυμωμένος | angry (ADJ S ms) |
| θomaˈis | thōmais | θωμαίς | (nm) |
| kalaˈθaca | kalathakia | καλαθάκια | baskets (N Pl dim) |
| kalaˈθas | kalathas | καλαθάς | basket-maker (N S) |
| kaˈlaθi | kalathi | καλάθι | basket (N S) |
| kaθaˈɾes | kathares | καθαρές | clean (ADJ Pl fm) |
| kaθaˈɾi | katharī | καθαρή | clean (ADJ S fm) |
| kaθaˈɾizis | katharizeis | καθαρίζεις | clean (V 2 S) |
| kaθaˈɾizume | katharizoyme | καθαρίζουμε | clean (V 1 Pl) |
| kaˈθaɾisa | katharisa | καθάριςα | clean (V 1 S past) |
| kaθaˈɾisis | kathariseis | καθαρίςεις | clean (V 2 S fut) |
| kaθaˈɾisume | katharisoyme | καθαρίςουμε | clean (V 1 Pl) |
| kaθaˈɾiso | katharisō | καθαρίςω | clean (V 1 S) |
| kaθaˈɾo | katharo | καθαρό | clean (ADJ S ntr) |
| kaθaˈɾos | katharos | καθαρός | clean (ADJ S ms) |
| ˈkaθe | kathe | κάθε | every (PRON) |
| kaˈθenas | kathenas | καθένας | everyone (PRON) |
| ˈkaθese | kathesai | κάθεςαι | sit (V 2 S) |
| ˈkaθete | kathetai | κάθεται | sit (V 3 S) |
| ˈkaθise | kathīse | κάθηςε | sit (V S imp) |
| kaˈθisi | kathīsei | καθήςει | sit (V 3 S) |
| kaˈθisume | kathītsoyme | καθήςουμε | sit (V 1 Pl) |
| kaˈθiste | kathīste | καθήςτε | sit (V 2 Pl imp) |
| kaˈθiso | kathīsō | καθήςω | sit (V 1 S) |
| ˈkaθizma | kathisma | κάθιςμα | seat (N) |
| ˈkaθome | kathomai | κάθομαι | sit (V 1 Pl) |
| kaˈθomuna | kathomoyna | καθόμουνα | sit (V 1 S past) |
| ˈkaθode | kathontai | κάθονται | sit (V 3 Pl) |
| kaθɾeˈftaci | kathreftaki | καθρεφτάκι | mirror (N S dim) |
| kaˈθɾeftis | kathreftīs | καθρέφτης | mirror (N S) |
| caliθiˈna | ki'alīthina | κι'αληθινά | trully (ADV el) |
| ciˈθaɾa | kithara | κιθάρα | guitar (N S) |
| cimiˈθi | koimīthei | κοιμηθεί | sleep (V 3 S fut) |
| cimiˈθis | koimītheis | κοιμηθείς | sleep (V 2 S fut) |
| cimiˈθite | koimītheite | κοιμηθείτε | sleep (V 2 Pl) |
| ciˈmiθika | koimīthīka | κοιμήθηκα | sleep (V 1 S past) |
| cimiˈθikame | koimīthīkame | κοιμηθήκαμε | sleep (V 1 Pl past) |
| ciˈmiθikan | koimīthīkan | κοιμήθηκαν | sleep (V 3 Pl past) |
| ciˈmiθice | koimīthīke | κοιμήθηκε | sleep (V 3 S past) |
| ciˈmiθices | koimīthīkes | κοιμήθηκες | sleep (V 2 S past) |
| cimiˈθume | koimīthoyme | κοιμηθούμε | sleep (V 1 Pl fut) |
| cimiˈθune | koimīthoyne | κοιμηθούνε | sleep (V 3 Pl fut) |
| cimiˈθo | koimīthō | κοιμηθώ | sleep (V 1 S fut) |
| kukloˈθeatɾo | koyklotheatro | κουκλοθέατρο | puppet-show (N S) |
| kuniˈθis | koynītheis | κουνηθείς | move (V 2 S fut) |
| laˈviɾinθos | lavyrithos | λαβύρινθος | maze (N S) |
| ˈlaθos | lathos | λάθος | mistake (N S) |
| leɾoˈθis | lerōtheis | λερωθείς | get dirty (V 2 S) |
| leɾoˈθune | lerōthoyne | λερωθούνε | get dirty (V 3 PL) |
| maˈθeno | mathainō | μαθαίνω | learn (V 1 S) |
| ˈmaθi | mathei | μάθει | learn (V 3 S) |
| ˈmaθis | matheis | μάθεις | learn (V 2 S) |
| ˈmaθima | mathīma | μάθημα | lesson (N S) |
| maθiˈtes | mathītes | μαθητές | students (N Pl) |
| ˈmaθume | mathoyme | μάθουμε | learn (V 1 Pl) |
| ˈmaθune | mathoyne | μάθουνε | learn (V 3 Pl) |
| ˈmaθo | mathō | μάθω | learn (V 1 S) |
| maˈɾaθi | marathi | μαράθι | (nm) |
| meˈθavɾio | methayrio | μεθαύριο | day after tomorrow (ADV) |
| bubuˈliθɾes | mpoympoylīthres | μπουμπουλήθρες | bubbles (N Pl) |
| ˈnaɾθi | na΄rthei | νά΄ρθει | to come (V 3 S el) |
| ˈnaɾθis | na΄rtheis | να΄ρθείς | to come (V 2 S el) |
| ˈnaɾθo | na΄rthō | νά’ρθω | to come (V 1 S el) |
| diˈθi | ntithei | ντυθεί | dress itself (V 3 S fut) |
| diˈθo | ntithō | ντυθώ | dress myself (V 1 S fut) |
| ksanacimiˈθite | xanakoimītheite | ξανακοιμηθείτε | go back to sleep (V 2 Pl) |
| ksanaɾˈθo | xanarthō | ξανάρθω | come again (V 1 S) |
| ˈoɾθia | orthia | όρθια | standing (ADJ S Fm) |
| ˈpaθis | patheis | πάθεις | suffer (V 2 S) |
| paˈɾaθiɾa | parathyra | παράθυρα | windows (N Pl) |
| paˈɾaθiɾo | parathyra | παράθυρο | window (N) |
| paɾakoluˈθis | parakoloytheis | παρακολουθείς | watch (V 2 S) |
| paɾamiˈθaci | paramythaki | παραμυθάκι | fairytale (N dim) |
| paɾaˈmiθi | paramythi | παραμύθι | fairytale (N) |
| paɾaˈmiθça | paramythia | παραμύθια | fairytales (N Pl) |
| peθaˈmeni | pethamenī | πεθαμένη | dead (PRTL fm) |
| ˈpeθane | pethane | πέθανε | die (V 3 S past) |
| peˈθanis | pethaneis | πεθάνεις | die (V 2 S) |
| pliˈθis | plitheis | πλυθείς | wash (V 2 S) |
| puθeˈna | poythena | πουθενά | nowhere (ADV) |
| pɾoˈspaθise | prospathīse | προςπάθηςε | try (V 2 S imp) |
| pɾospaˈθiso | prospathīsō | προςπαθήςω | try (V 1 S) |
| ɾiθˈmo | rythmo | ρυθμό | rhythm (N S acc) |
| sikoˈθi | sīkōthei | ςηκωθεί | stand (V 3 S fut) |
| sikoˈθis | sīkōtheis | ςηκωθείς | stand (V 2 S fut) |
| siˈkoθika | sīkōthīka | ςηκώθηκα | stood (V 1 S past) |
| siˈkoθikes | sīkōthīkes | ςηκώθηκες | stand (V 2 S past) |
| sikoˈθo | sīkōthō | ςηκωθώ | stand (V 1 S fut) |
| skotoˈθo | skotōthō | ςκοτωθώ | kill myself (V 1 S fut) |
| staˈθi | stathei | ςταθεί | stand (V 3 S fut) |
| staliθiˈna | stalīthina | ςτ'αληθινά | trully (ADV el) |
| sinadiˈθume | synantīthoyme | ςυναντηθούμε | meet (V 1 Pl) |
| sikoˈθikame | sōthīkame | ςωθήκαμε | stand (V 1 Pl past) |
| ʦakoˈθume | tsakōthoyme | τςακωθούμε | quarrel (V 1 Pl fut) |
| ʦuˈliθɾa | tsoylīthra | τςουλήθρα | slide (N S) |
| filoˈθei | filotheī | φιλοθέη | (nm) |
| foviˈθis | fovītheis | φοβηθείς | be scared (V 2 S fut) |
| foˈviθika | fovīthīka | φοβήθηκα | be scared (V 1 S past) |
| ˈxaθika | chathīka | χάθηκα | be lost (V 1 S past) |
| çiˈθi | chythei | χυθεί | be spilled (V 3 S fut) |
| çiθice | chythīke | χύθηκε | be spilled (V 3 S past) |
| psiˈθune | psīthoyne | ψηθούνε | be baked (V 3 Pl) |
| psiθiˈɾizo | psithyrizō | ψιθυρίζω | whisper (V 1 S) |
| psiˈθiɾise | psithyrīse | ψιθύρηςε | whisper (V 3 S past) |
© 2017 Faculty of English, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Bilingual development of theta in a child
- How will text size influence the length of its linguistic constituents?
- The dimensions of learner attitudes to general british and general american: a survey-based study
- Derived Imperfective Tensing in Kurpian
- Analysing intersubjective resources in Persian and English newspaper opinion/editorials
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Bilingual development of theta in a child
- How will text size influence the length of its linguistic constituents?
- The dimensions of learner attitudes to general british and general american: a survey-based study
- Derived Imperfective Tensing in Kurpian
- Analysing intersubjective resources in Persian and English newspaper opinion/editorials
