Abstract
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is recognized as the most relevant because it was classified as a Group 1 carcinogen and due to its strong association with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in humans. The significant contribution of AFB1-contaminated food to HCC cases, highlights the critical importance of understanding the chemistry and metabolism of this mycotoxin, as its study is hiddenly subordinated as one of the key pillars of attention to the challenges that contaminated food consumption represents to public health and food safety. This review highlights the structural and physicochemical descriptors of AFB1, its metabolism, and mechanisms of toxicity, while also discussing the contemporary control strategies and mitigation approaches aimed to ensure food safety and public health.
-
Research ethics: Not applicable.
-
Informed consent: Not applicable.
-
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
-
Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.
-
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
-
Research funding: None declared.
-
Data availability: Not applicable.
References
1. Moretti, A.; Susca, A., Eds.; Mycotoxigenic Fungi Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology; Springer New York: New York, NY, Vol. 1542, 2017.10.1007/978-1-4939-6707-0Suche in Google Scholar
2. Mannani, N.; El Boujamaai, M.; Sifou, A.; Bennani, M.; El Adlouni, C.; Abdennebi, E. H.; Zinedine, A. Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A in Dried Fruits from Morocco: Monitoring, Regulatory Aspects, and Exposure Assessment. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2023, 145, 105503. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YRTPH.2023.105503.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
3. Eskola, M.; Kos, G.; Elliott, C. T.; Hajšlová, J.; Mayar, S.; Krska, R. Worldwide Contamination of Food-Crops with Mycotoxins: Validity of the Widely Cited ‘FAO Estimate’ of 25%. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 60 (16), 2773–2789. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019.1658570.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
4. Milicevic, D.; Nesic, K.; Jaksic, S. Mycotoxin Contamination of the Food Supply Chain – Implications for One Health Programme. Procedia Food Sci 2015, 5, 187–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2015.09.053.Suche in Google Scholar
5. Payne, G.; Richard, J.; Desjardins, A.; Maragos, C.; Norred, W.; Pestka, J.; Phillips, T.; Vardon, P.; Whitaker, T.; Wood, G.; van Egmond, H. Mycotoxins – Risks in Plant, Animal and Human Systems; Ames: Iowa, 2003.Suche in Google Scholar
6. Huong, B. T. M.; Tuyen, L. D.; Tuan, D. H.; Brimer, L.; Dalsgaard, A. Dietary Exposure to Aflatoxin B1, Ochratoxin A and Fuminisins of Adults in Lao Cai Province, Viet Nam: A Total Dietary Study Approach. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2016, 98, 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2016.10.012.Suche in Google Scholar
7. IARC. IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans; Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs. Vols 1–134 https://monographs.iarc.who.int/agents-classified-by-the-iarc/(accessed 2025-07-19).Suche in Google Scholar
8. World Health Organization. Mycotoxins. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mycotoxins (accessed 2025-07-19).Suche in Google Scholar
9. Martinez-Miranda, M. M.; Rosero-Moreano, M.; Taborda-Ocampo, G. Occurrence, Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment of Aflatoxins in Arepa, Bread and Rice. Food Control 2019, 98, 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCONT.2018.11.046.Suche in Google Scholar
10. Kabak, B. Aflatoxins in Foodstuffs: Occurrence and Risk Assessment in Turkey. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2021, 96, 103734. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFCA.2020.103734.Suche in Google Scholar
11. Nejad, A. S. M.; Heshmati, A.; Ghiasvand, T. The Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Exposure to Aflatoxin M1 in Ultra-high Temperature and Pasteurized Milk in Hamadan Province of Iran. Osong Public Health Res. Perspect. 2019, 10 (4), 228. https://doi.org/10.24171/J.PHRP.2019.10.4.05.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
12. Wu, F.; Groopman, J. D.; Pestka, J. J. Public Health Impacts of Foodborne Mycotoxins. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 5 (1), 351–372. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-FOOD-030713-092431.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
13. Agag, B. I. Mycotoxins in Foods and Feeds: 1-Aflatoxins. Ass. Univ. Bull. Environ. Res. 2004, 7 (1), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.21608/auber.2004.150623.Suche in Google Scholar
14. Li, J.; Wang, J.; Fan, J.; Huang, G.; Yan, L. Binding Characteristics of Aflatoxin B1 with Free DNA in vitro. Spectrochim. Acta Part Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2020, 230, 118054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2020.118054.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
15. Benkerroum, N. Chronic and Acute Toxicities of Aflatoxins: Mechanisms of Action. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health 2020, 17 (2), 423. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH17020423.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
16. Schuda, P. F. Aflatoxin Chemistry and Syntheses. In Syntheses of Natural Products; Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg, 1980; pp. 75–111.10.1007/3-540-09827-5_3Suche in Google Scholar
17. Pavão, A. C.; Neto, L. A. S.; Neto, J. F.; Leão, M. B. C. Structure and Activity of Aflatoxins B and G. J. Mol. Struct.: Theochem 1995, 337 (1), 57–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-1280(94)04104-Z.Suche in Google Scholar
18. Lalah, J. O.; Omwoma, S.; Orony, D. A. O.; Lalah, J. O.; Omwoma, S.; Orony, D. A. O. Aflatoxin B1: Chemistry, Environmental and Diet Sources and Potential Exposure in Human in Kenya. In Aflatoxin B1 Occurrence, Detection and Toxicological Effects, 2019.Suche in Google Scholar
19. O’Neil, M., Ed.; The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals, 14th ed.; Merck and Co; Inc.: Whitehouse Station, NJ, 2006.Suche in Google Scholar
20. EFSA; Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain CONTAM; Schrenk, D.; Bignami, M.; Bodin, L.; Chipman, J. K.; del Mazo, J.; Grasl‐Kraupp, B.; Hogstrand, C.; Hoogenboom, L. R.; Leblanc, J.; Nebbia, C. S.; Nielsen, E.; Ntzani, E.; Petersen, A.; Sand, S.; Schwerdtle, T.; Vleminckx, C.; Marko, D.; Oswald, I. P.; Piersma, A.; Routledge, M.; Schlatter, J.; Baert, K.; Gergelova, P.; Wallace, H. Risk Assessment of Aflatoxins in Food. EFSA J. 2020, 18 (3), e06040. https://doi.org/10.2903/J.EFSA.2020.6040.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
21. Rumgay, H.; Arnold, M.; Ferlay, J.; Lesi, O.; Cabasag, C. J.; Vignat, J.; Laversanne, M.; McGlynn, K. A.; Soerjomataram, I. Global Burden of Primary Liver Cancer in 2020 and Predictions to 2040. J. Hepatol. 2022, 77 (6), 1598–1606. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHEP.2022.08.021.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
22. Liu, Y.; Wu, F. Global Burden of Aflatoxin-Induced Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Risk Assessment. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118 (6), 818–824. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP.0901388.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
23. Varga, J.; Frisvad, J. C.; Samson, R. A. A. Reappraisal of Fungi Producing Aflatoxins, 2009, 2 (3), 263–277. https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2008.1094.Suche in Google Scholar
24. Frisvad, J. C.; Hubka, V.; Ezekiel, C. N.; Hong, S. B.; Nováková, A.; Chen, A. J.; Arzanlou, M.; Larsen, T. O.; Sklenář, F.; Mahakarnchanakul, W.; Samson, R. A.; Houbraken, J. Taxonomy of Aspergillus Section Flavi and Their Production of Aflatoxins, Ochratoxins and Other Mycotoxins. Stud. Mycol. 2019, 93, 1–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SIMYCO.2018.06.001.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
25. Cotty, P. J.; Bayman, P.; Egel, D. S.; Elias, K. S. Agriculture, Aflatoxins and Aspergillus. The Genus Aspergillus 1994, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0981-7_1.Suche in Google Scholar
26. Amaike, S.; Keller, N. P. Aspergillus flavus. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 2011, 49, 107–133; https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-PHYTO-072910-095221.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
27. Baranyi, N.; Kocsubé, S.; Vágvölgyi, C.; Varga, J. Current Trends in Aflatoxin Research. Acta Biol. Szeged. 2013, 57 (2), 95–107.Suche in Google Scholar
28. Mahuku, G.; Nzioki, H. S.; Mutegi, C.; Kanampiu, F.; Narrod, C.; Makumbi, D. Pre-Harvest Management Is a Critical Practice for Minimizing Aflatoxin Contamination of Maize. Food Control 2019, 96, 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCONT.2018.08.032.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
29. Gourama, H.; Bullerman, L. B. Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus: Aflatoxigenic Fungi of Concern in Foods and Feeds: A Review. J. Food Prot. 1995, 58 (12), 1395–1404; https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-58.12.1395.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
30. Horn, B. W.; Moore, G. G.; Carbone, I. Sexual Reproduction in Aspergillus flavus. Mycologia 2009, 101 (3), 423–429; https://doi.org/10.3852/09-011.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
31. Horn, B. W.; Ramirez-Prado, J. H.; Carbone, I. The Sexual State of Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycologia 2009, 101 (2), 275–280; https://doi.org/10.3852/08-205.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
32. Gómez-Salazar, J. A.; Ruiz-Hernández, K.; Martínez-Miranda, M. M.; Castro-Ríos, K. Postharvest Strategies for Decontamination of Aflatoxins in Cereals. Food Rev. Int. 2023, 39 (7), 3635–3662. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.2013254.Suche in Google Scholar
33. Mousavi Khaneghah, A.; Ismail, E.; Raeisi, S.; Fakhri, Y. Aflatoxins in Cereals: State of the Art. J. Food Saf. 2018, 38 (6), e12532. https://doi.org/10.1111/JFS.12532.Suche in Google Scholar
34. Probst, C.; Schulthess, F.; Cotty, P. J. Impact of Aspergillus Section Flavi Community Structure on the Development of Lethal Levels of Aflatoxins in Kenyan Maize (Zea Mays). J. Appl. Microbiol. 2010, 108 (2), 600–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2672.2009.04458.X.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
35. Pretari, A.; Hoffmann, V.; Tian, L. Post-harvest Practices for Aflatoxin Control: Evidence from Kenya. J. Stored Prod. Res. 2019, 82, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JSPR.2019.03.001.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
36. Martínez, J.; Hernández-Rodríguez, M.; Méndez-Albores, A.; Téllez-Isaías, G.; Mera Jiménez, E.; Nicolás-Vázquez, M. I.; Miranda Ruvalcaba, R. Computational Studies of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1): A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2023, 15 (2), 135. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020135.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
37. Tola, M.; Kebede, B. Occurrence, Importance and Control of Mycotoxins: A Review. Cogent Food Agric. 2016, 2 (1), 1191103. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2016.1191103.Suche in Google Scholar
38. Sargeant, K.; Sheridan, A.; O’Kelly, J.; Carnaghan, R. B. A. Toxicity Associated with Certain Samples of Groundnuts. Nature 1961, 192 (4807), 1096–1097. https://doi.org/10.1038/1921096a0.Suche in Google Scholar
39. Nesbitt, B. F.; O’Kelly, J.; Sargeant, K.; Sheridan, A. Aspergillus flavus and Turkey X Disease: Toxic Metabolites of Aspergillus flavus. Nature 1962, 195 (4846), 1062; https://doi.org/10.1038/1951062a0.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
40. Hartley, R. D.; Nesbitt, B. F.; O’Kelly, J. Toxic Metabolites of Aspergillus flavus. Nature 1963, 198 (4885), 1056–1058; https://doi.org/10.1038/1981056a0.Suche in Google Scholar
41. Asao, T.; Buchi, G.; Abdel-Kader, M. M.; Chang, S. B.; Wick, E. L.; Wogan, G. N. Aflatoxins B and G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1963, 85 (11), 1706–1707. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00894a050.Suche in Google Scholar
42. Williams, J. H.; Phillips, T. D.; Jolly, P. E.; Stiles, J. K.; Jolly, C. M.; Aggarwal, D. Human Aflatoxicosis in Developing Countries: A Review of Toxicology, Exposure, Potential Health Consequences, and Interventions2. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 80 (5), 1106–1122. https://doi.org/10.1093/AJCN/80.5.1106.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
43. Pachter, R.; Steyn, P. S. Quantum-Chemical Studies of Aflatoxin B1, Sterigmatocystin and Versicolorin A, and a Comparison with Their Mutagenic Activity. Mutat. Res. Lett. 1985, 143 (1–2), 87–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-7992(85)90111-3.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
44. ChemSpider. CSID:162470; Royal Society of Chemistry. https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.162470.html (accessed 2025-08-11).Suche in Google Scholar
45. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Aflatoxin B1. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Aflatoxin-B1 (accessed 2023-10-30).Suche in Google Scholar
46. Haynes, W. M., Ed.; CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 91st ed; CRC Press Inc.: Boca Raton, FL, 2011.Suche in Google Scholar
47. CAMEO Chemicals. AFLATOXIN B-1. https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/chemical/19727 (accessed 2023-10-30).Suche in Google Scholar
48. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Annotation Record for AFLATOXIN B1. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/source/hsdb/3453 (accessed 2023-10-30).Suche in Google Scholar
49. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Annotation Record for AFLATOXIN B2. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/source/hsdb/3454#section=Related-HSDB-Records (accessed 2025-29-07).Suche in Google Scholar
50. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Annotation Record for AFLATOXIN G1. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/source/hsdb/3455 (accessed 2025-29-07).Suche in Google Scholar
51. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Annotation Record for AFLATOXIN G2. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/source/hsdb/3456 (accessed 2025-29-07).Suche in Google Scholar
52. Grenier, B.; Applegate, T. J. Modulation of Intestinal Functions Following Mycotoxin Ingestion: Meta-Analysis of Published Experiments in Animals. Toxins (Basel) 2013, 5 (2), 396–430. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins5020396.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
53. Buechi, G.; Foulkes, D. M.; Kurono, M.; Mitchell, G. F.; Schneider, R. S. The Total Synthesis of Racemic Aflatoxin B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1967, 89 (25), 6745–6753. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01001a062.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
54. Yang, L.; Wang, Z. Advances in the Total Synthesis of Aflatoxins. Front Chem 2021, 9, 779765. https://doi.org/10.3389/FCHEM.2021.779765/BIBTEX.Suche in Google Scholar
55. Trost, B. M.; Toste, F. D. Palladium Catalyzed Kinetic and Dynamic Kinetic Asymmetric Transformations of γ-Acyloxybutenolides. Enantioselective Total Synthesis of (+)-Aflatoxin B1 and B2a. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125 (10), 3090–3100. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja020988s.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
56. Marino, J. P.; Kieler, K. A.; Kim, M.-W. An Enantioselective Synthesis of (À)-4-Hydroxy-6-Methoxy-3a,8a-Dihydrofuro [2,3-b]Benzofuran: An Advanced Intermediate in the Synthesis of (À)-Aflatoxin B 1 and G 1, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tet.2010.10.003.Suche in Google Scholar
57. Wang, L.; Huang, Q.; Wu, J.; Wu, W.; Jiang, J.; Yan, H.; Huang, J.; Sun, Y.; Deng, Y. The Metabolism and Biotransformation of AFB1: Key Enzymes and Pathways. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2022, 199, 115005. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BCP.2022.115005.Suche in Google Scholar
58. Kamdem, L. K.; Meineke, I.; Gödtel-Armbrust, U.; Brockmöller, J.; Wojnowski, L. Dominant Contribution of P450 3A4 to the Hepatic Carcinogenic Activation of Aflatoxin B1. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2006, 19 (4), 577–586. https://doi.org/10.1021/tx050358e.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
59. Wild, C. P.; Turner, P. C. The Toxicology of Aflatoxins as a Basis for Public Health Decisions. Mutagenesis 2002, 17 (6), 471–481. https://doi.org/10.1093/MUTAGE/17.6.471.Suche in Google Scholar
60. Baertschi, S. W.; Raney, K. D.; Stone, M. P.; Harris, T. M. Preparation of the 8,9-Epoxide of the Mycotoxin Aflatoxin B1: The Ultimate Carcinogenic Species. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1988, 110 (23), 7929–7931. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00231a083.Suche in Google Scholar
61. Thanushree, M. P.; Sailendri, D.; Yoha, K. S.; Moses, J. A.; Anandharamakrishnan, C. Mycotoxin Contamination in Food: An Exposition on Spices. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 93, 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TIFS.2019.08.010.Suche in Google Scholar
62. Bbosa, G. S.; Kitya, D.; Odda, J.; Ogwal-Okeng, J. Aflatoxins Metabolism, Effects on Epigenetic Mechanisms and Their Role in Carcinogenesis 2013, 5 (10A), 14–34, https://doi.org/10.4236/health.2013.510A1003.Suche in Google Scholar
63. Ueng, Y. F.; Shimada, T.; Yamazaki, H.; Guengerich, F. P. Oxidation of Aflatoxin B1 by Bacterial Recombinant Human Cytochrome P450 Enzymes. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 1995, 8 (2), 218–225. https://doi.org/10.1021/tx00044a006.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
64. Gallagher, E. P.; Kunze, K. L.; Stapleton, P. L.; Eaton, D. L. The Kinetics of Aflatoxin B1Oxidation by Human CDNA-Expressed and Human Liver Microsomal Cytochromes P450 1A2 and 3A4. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1996, 141 (2), 595–606. https://doi.org/10.1006/TAAP.1996.0326.Suche in Google Scholar
65. Cao, W.; Yu, P.; Yang, K. P.; Cao, D. Aflatoxin B1: Metabolism, Toxicology, and its Involvement in Oxidative Stress and Cancer Development. Toxicol. Mech. Methods 2022, 32 (6), 395–419. https://doi.org/10.1080/15376516.2021.2021339.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
66. Murcia, H.; Diaz, G. J. Dealing with Aflatoxin B1 Dihydrodiol Acute Effects: Impact of Aflatoxin B1-Aldehyde Reductase Enzyme Activity in Poultry Species Tolerant to AFB1 Toxic Effects. PLoS One 2020, 15 (6), e0235061. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0235061.Suche in Google Scholar
67. Guengerich, F. P.; Cai, H.; McMahon, M.; Hayes, J. D.; Sutter, T. R.; Groopman, J. D.; Deng, Z.; Harris, T. M. Reduction of Aflatoxin B1 Dialdehyde by Rat and Human Aldo-Keto Reductases. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2001, 14 (6), 727–737. https://doi.org/10.1021/tx010005p.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
68. Heinonen, J. T.; Fisher, R.; Brendel, K.; Eaton, D. L. Determination of Aflatoxin B1 Biotransformation and Binding to Hepatic Macromolecules in Human Precision Liver Slices. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1996, 136 (1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1006/TAAP.1996.0001.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
69. Moss, E. J.; Neal, G. E.; Judah, D. J. The Mercapturic Acid Pathway Metabolites of a Glutathione Conjugate of Aflatoxin B1. Chem. Biol. Interact. 1985, 55 (C), 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2797(85)80124-1.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
70. Lin, Y. C.; Li, L.; Makarova, A. V.; Burgers, P. M.; Stone, M. P.; Lloyd, R. S. Error-Prone Replication Bypass of the Primary Aflatoxin B1 DNA Adduct, AFB1-N7-Gua. J. Biol. Chem. 2014, 289 (26), 18497–18506. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M114.561563.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
71. Essigmann, J. M.; Croy, R. G.; Nadzan, A. M.; Busby, W. F.; Reinhold, V. N.; Büchi, G.; Wogan, G. N. Structural Identification of the Major DNA Adduct Formed by Aflatoxin B1 In Vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1977, 74 (5), 1870–1874. https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.74.5.1870.Suche in Google Scholar
72. Okajima, T.; Shirakawa, Y.; Hashikawa, A. On the Reaction of Mutagenic Aflatoxin B1 Oxide and Benz[a]Pyrene Diol Oxide with Guanine Residue in DNA Double Helix. J. Mol. Struct.: Theochem 2002, 581 (1–3), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-1280(01)00754-0.Suche in Google Scholar
73. Lin, Y. C.; Owen, N.; Minko, I. G.; Lange, S. S.; Tomida, J.; Li, L.; Stone, M. P.; Wood, R. D.; McCullough, A. K.; Lloyd, R. S. DNA Polymerase ζ Limits Chromosomal Damage and Promotes Cell Survival Following Aflatoxin Exposure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (48), 13774–13779. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609024113.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
74. Smela, M. E.; Hamm, M. L.; Henderson, P. T.; Harris, C. M.; Harris, T. M.; Essigmann, J. M. The Aflatoxin B1 Formamidopyrimidine Adduct Plays a Major Role in Causing the Types of Mutations Observed in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002, 99 (10), 6655–6660, https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.102167699.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
75. Creppy, E. E. Update of Survey, Regulation and Toxic Effects of Mycotoxins in Europe. Toxicol. Lett. 2002, 127 (1–3), 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4274(01)00479-9.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
76. Egner, P. A.; Yu, X.; Johnson, J. K.; Nathasingh, C. K.; Groopman, J. D.; Kensler, T. W.; Roebuck, B. D. Identification of Aflatoxin M1-N7-Guanine in Liver and Urine of Tree Shrews and Rats Following Administration of Aflatoxin B 1. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2003, 16 (9), 1174–1180. https://doi.org/10.1021/tx034106u.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
77. Yang, X.; Li, X.; Gao, Y.; Wang, J.; Zheng, N. Integrated Metabolomics and Lipidomics Analysis Reveals Lipid Metabolic Disorder in NCM460 Cells Caused by Aflatoxin B1 and Aflatoxin M1 Alone and in Combination. Toxins (Basel) 2023, 15 (4), 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/TOXINS15040255/S1.Suche in Google Scholar
78. Eaton, D. L.; Williams, D. E.; Coulombe, R. A. Species Differences in the Biotransformation of Aflatoxin B1: Primary Determinants of Relative Carcinogenic Potency in Different Animal Species. Toxins (Basel) 2025, 17 (1), 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/TOXINS17010030.Suche in Google Scholar
79. Rushing, B. R.; Selim, M. I. Aflatoxin B1: A Review on Metabolism, Toxicity, Occurrence in Food, Occupational Exposure, and Detoxification Methods. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2019, 124, 81–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2018.11.047.Suche in Google Scholar
80. Wang, H.; Dick, R.; Yin, H.; Licad-Coles, E.; Kroetz, D. L.; Szklarz, G.; Harlow, G.; Halpert, J. R.; Correia, M. A. Structure-Function Relationships of Human Liver Cytochromes P450 3A: Aflatoxin B1 Metabolism as a Probe. Biochemistry 1998, 37 (36), 12536–12545. https://doi.org/10.1021/bi980895g.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
81. Iori, S.; Lahtela-Kakkonen, M.; D’Onofrio, C.; Maietti, F.; Mucignat, G.; Bardhi, A.; Barbarossa, A.; Zaghini, A.; Pauletto, M.; Dacasto, M.; Giantin, M. New Insights into Aflatoxin B1 Mechanistic Toxicology in Cattle Liver: An Integrated Approach Using Molecular Docking and Biological Evaluation in CYP1A1 and CYP3A74 Knockout BFH12 Cell Lines. Arch. Toxicol. 2024, 98 (9), 3097–3108. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00204-024-03799-Y.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
82. Raney, K. D.; Shimada, T.; Kim, D. H.; Groopman, J. D.; Harris, T. M.; Guengerich, F. P. Oxidation of Aflatoxins and Sterigmatocystin by Human Liver Microsomes: Significance of Aflatoxin Q1 as a Detoxication Product of Aflatoxin B1. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 1992, 5 (2), 202–210. https://doi.org/10.1021/TX00026A009/.Suche in Google Scholar
83. Masri, M. S.; Haddon, W. F.; Lundin, R. E.; Hsieh, D. P. H. Aflatoxin Q1. A Newly Identified Major Metabolite of Aflatoxin B1 in Monkey Liver. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1974, 22 (3), 512–515. https://doi.org/10.1021/JF60193A050.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
84. Smith, J.; Sivewright-Henderson, R., Eds.; Mycotoxins and Animal Foods; CRC Press, Inc.: Boca Raton, 1991.Suche in Google Scholar
85. Theumer, M. G.; Henneb, Y.; Khoury, L.; Snini, S. P.; Tadrist, S.; Canlet, C.; Puel, O.; Oswald, I. P.; Audebert, M. Genotoxicity of Aflatoxins and Their Precursors in Human Cells. Toxicol. Lett. 2018, 287, 100–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TOXLET.2018.02.007.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
86. Cole, R.; Cox, R., Eds.; The Aflatoxins. In Handbook of Toxic Fungal Metabolites; Academic Press Inc.: New York, 1981; pp. 1–66.10.1016/B978-0-12-179760-7.50006-1Suche in Google Scholar
87. Nakazato, M.; Morozumi, S.; Saito, K.; Fujinuma, K.; Nishima, T.; Kasai, N. Interconversion of Aflatoxin B1 and Aflatoxicol by Several Fungi. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1990, 56 (5), 1465–1470. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.56.5.1465-1470.1990.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
88. Megalla, S. E.; Mohran, M. A. Fate of Aflatoxin B-1 in Fermented Dairy Products. Mycopathologia 1984, 88 (1), 27–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00439291/METRICS.Suche in Google Scholar
89. Loveland, P. M.; Wilcox, J. S.; Hendricks, J. D.; Bailey, G. S. Comparative Metabolism and DNA Binding of Aflatoxin B 1 , Aflatoxin M1 , Aflatoxicol and Aflatoxicol-M 1 in Hepatocytes from Rainbow Trout (Salmo Gairdneri). Carcinogenesis 1988, 9 (3), 441–446. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/9.3.441.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
90. Partanen, H. A.; El-Nezami, H. S.; Leppänen, J. M.; Myllynen, P. K.; Woodhouse, H. J.; Vähäkangas, K. H. Aflatoxin B1 Transfer and Metabolism in Human Placenta. Toxicol. Sci. 2010, 113 (1), 216–225. https://doi.org/10.1093/TOXSCI/KFP257.Suche in Google Scholar
91. Karabulut, S.; Paytakov, G.; Leszczynski, J. Reduction of Aflatoxin B1 to Aflatoxicol: A Comprehensive DFT Study Provides Clues to its Toxicity. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2014, 94 (15), 3134–3140. https://doi.org/10.1002/JSFA.6663.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
92. Carvajal, M.; Rojo, F.; Méndez, I.; Bolaños, A. Aflatoxin B1 and its Interconverting Metabolite Aflatoxicol in Milk: The Situation in Mexico. Food Addit. Contam. 2003, 20 (11), 1077–1086. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030310001594478.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
93. Muaz, K.; Manzoor, S.; Akhtar, S.; Riaz, M.; Amir, M.; Akram, K.; Ismail, A. Aflatoxin Biosynthesis. In Aflatoxins in Food: A Recent Perspective; Springer: Cham, 2022; pp 19–40.10.1007/978-3-030-85762-2_2Suche in Google Scholar
94. Salhab, A. S.; Hsieh, D. P. H. Aflatoxicol H1: A Major Metabolite of Aflatoxin B1 Produced by Human and Rhesus Monkey Livers In Vitro. Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. 1975, 10 (3), 419–429.Suche in Google Scholar
95. Ramalho, L. N. Z.; Porta, L. D.; Rosim, R. E.; Petta, T.; Augusto, M. J.; Silva, D. M.; Ramalho, F. S.; Oliveira, C. A. F. Aflatoxin B1 Residues in Human Livers and Their Relationship with Markers of Hepatic Carcinogenesis in São Paulo, Brazil. Toxicol Rep 2018, 5, 777–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TOXREP.2018.07.005.Suche in Google Scholar
96. Niu, G.; Wen, Z.; Rupasinghe, S. G.; Zeng, R. S.; Berenbaum, M. R.; Schuler, M. A. Aflatoxin B1 Detoxification by CYP321A1 in Helicoverpa Zea. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 2008, 69 (1), 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/ARCH.20256.Suche in Google Scholar
97. He, X. Y.; Tang, L.; Wang, S. L.; Cai, Q. S.; Wang, J. S.; Hong, J. Y. Efficient Activation of Aflatoxin B1 by Cytochrome P450 2A13, an Enzyme Predominantly Expressed in Human Respiratory Tract. Int. J. Cancer 2006, 118 (11), 2665–2671. https://doi.org/10.1002/IJC.21665.Suche in Google Scholar
98. Essigmann, J. M.; Croy, R. G.; Bennett, R. A.; Wogan, G. N. Metabolic Activation of Aflatoxin B1: Patterns of DNA Adduct Formation, Removal, and Excretion in Relation to Carcinogenesis. Drug Metab. Rev. 1982, 13 (4), 581–602. https://doi.org/10.3109/03602538209011088.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
99. Buchi, G.; Spitzner, D.; Paglialunga, S.; Wogan, G. N. Synthesis and Toxicity Evaluation of Aflatoxin P1. Life Sci. 1973, 13 (8), 1143–1149. https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(73)90381-0.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
100. Rushing, B. R.; Selim, M. I. Structure and Oxidation of Pyrrole Adducts Formed between Aflatoxin B2a and Biological Amines. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2017, 30 (6), 1275–1285. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.CHEMRESTOX.7B00002.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
101. Rushing, B. R.; Selim, M. I. Adduction to Arginine Detoxifies Aflatoxin B1 by Eliminating Genotoxicity and Altering In Vitro Toxicokinetic Profiles. Oncotarget 2018, 9 (4), 4559. https://doi.org/10.18632/ONCOTARGET.23382.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
102. Tovar, V.; Villanueva, A.; Llovet, J. M. Biología Celular y Genética En El Cáncer de Hígado. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2007, 30 (6), 360–369. https://doi.org/10.1157/13107573.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
103. Lee, Y. I.; Lee, S.; Das, G. C.; Park, U. S.; Park, S. M.; Lee, Y. I. Activation of the Insulin-like Growth Factor II Transcription by Aflatoxin B1 Induced P53 Mutant 249 Is Caused by Activation of Transcription Complexes; Implications for a Gain-Of-Function during the Formation of Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Oncogene 2000, 19 (33), 3717–3726. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1203694.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
104. Wu, K. Y.; Wei, Y. T.; Luo, Y. S.; Shen, L. C.; Chang, B. S.; Chen, Y. Y.; Huang, Y. C.; Huang, H. F.; Chung, W. S.; Chiang, S. Y. Dose-Response Formation of N7-(3-Benzo[1,3]Dioxol-5-Yl-2-Hydroxypropyl)Guanine in Liver and Urine Correlates with Micronucleated Reticulocyte Frequencies in Mice Administered Safrole Oxide. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2023, 181, 114056. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2023.114056.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
105. Gopalakrishnan, S.; Harris, T. M.; Stone, M. P. Intercalation of Aflatoxin B1 in Two Oligodeoxynucleotide Adducts: Comparative 1H NMR Analysis of D(ATCAFBGAT).D(ATCGAT) and D(ATAFBGCAT)2. Biochemistry 1990, 29 (46), 10438–10448. https://doi.org/10.1021/BI00498A002.Suche in Google Scholar
106. Kobertz, W. R.; Wang, D.; Wogan, G. N.; Essigmann, J. M. An Intercalation Inhibitor Altering the Target Selectivity of DNA Damaging Agents: Synthesis of Site-specific Aflatoxin B1 Adducts in a P53 Mutational Hotspot. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1997, 94 (18), 9579–9584. https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.94.18.9579.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
107. Raney, V. M.; Harris, T. M.; Stone, M. P. DNA Conformation Mediates Aflatoxin B1-DNA Binding and the Formation of Guanine N7 Adducts by Aflatoxin B1 8,9-Exo-Epoxide. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 1993, 6 (1), 64–68. https://doi.org/10.1021/TX00031A010.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
108. Li, Y.; Daniel, M.; Tollefsbol, T. O. Epigenetic Regulation of Caloric Restriction in Aging. BMC Med. 2011, 9 (1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-9-98.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
109. Morgan, A. E.; Davies, T. J.; McAuley, M. T. The Role of DNA Methylation in Ageing and Cancer, Vol. 77, 2018, pp. 412–422. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665118000150.Proc. Nutr. Soc.4Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
110. Bird, A. DNA Methylation Patterns and Epigenetic Memory. Genes Dev. 2002, 16 (1), 6–21. https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.947102.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
111. Dai, Y.; Huang, K.; Zhang, B.; Zhu, L.; Xu, W. Aflatoxin B1-Induced Epigenetic Alterations: An Overview. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2017, 109, 683–689. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2017.06.034.Suche in Google Scholar
112. Zhao, J.; Chen, H. Q.; Yang, H. F.; Li, X. Y.; Liu, W. Bin. Gene Expression Network Related to DNA Methylation and MiRNA Regulation during the Process of Aflatoxin B1-Induced Malignant Transformation of L02 Cells. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2022, 42 (3), 475–489. https://doi.org/10.1002/JAT.4233.Suche in Google Scholar
113. Soni, P.; Ghufran, M. S.; Olakkaran, S.; Puttaswamygowda, G. H.; Duddukuri, G. R.; Kanade, S. R. Epigenetic Alterations Induced by Aflatoxin B1: An In Vitro and In Vivo Approach with Emphasis on Enhancer of Zeste Homologue-2/P21 Axis. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 762, 143175. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2020.143175.Suche in Google Scholar
114. Valinluck, V.; Tsai, H. H.; Rogstad, D. K.; Burdzy, A.; Bird, A.; Sowers, L. C. Oxidative Damage to Methyl-CpG Sequences Inhibits the Binding of the Methyl-CpG Binding Domain (MBD) of Methyl-CpG Binding Protein 2 (MeCP2). Nucleic Acids Res. 2004, 32 (14), 4100–4108. https://doi.org/10.1093/NAR/GKH739.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
115. Rieswijk, L.; Claessen, S. M. H.; Bekers, O.; van Herwijnen, M.; Theunissen, D. H. J.; Jennen, D. G. J.; de Kok, T. M. C. M.; Kleinjans, J. C. S.; van Breda, S. G. J. Aflatoxin B1 Induces Persistent Epigenomic Effects in Primary Human Hepatocytes Associated with Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Toxicology 2016, 350–352, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TOX.2016.05.002.Suche in Google Scholar
116. Zhu, L.; Yuhan, J.; Huang, K.; He, X.; Liang, Z.; Xu, W. Multidimensional Analysis of the Epigenetic Alterations in Toxicities Induced by Mycotoxins. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2021, 153, 112251. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2021.112251.Suche in Google Scholar
117. Beermann, J.; Piccoli, M. T.; Viereck, J.; Thum, T. Non-Coding Rnas in Development and Disease: Background, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Approaches. Physiol. Rev. 2016, 96 (4), 1297–1325. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00041.2015.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
118. Liu, Y. X.; Long, X. D.; Xi, Z. F.; Ma, Y.; Huang, X. Y.; Yao, J. G.; Wang, C.; Xing, T. Y.; Xia, Q. MicroRNA-24 Modulates Aflatoxin B1-Related Hepatocellular Carcinoma Prognosis and Tumorigenesis. Biomed. Res. Int. 2014, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/482926.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
119. Wang, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, H.; Zhang, Y.; Ji, M.; Xu, H.; Wang, C.; Sun, Z.; Gao, W.; Wang, S. L. MiR-138-1* Regulates Aflatoxin B1-Induced Malignant Transformation of BEAS-2B Cells by Targeting PDK1. Arch. Toxicol. 2016, 90 (5), 1239–1249. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00204-015-1551-4.Suche in Google Scholar
120. Zhu, L.; Gao, J.; Huang, K.; Luo, Y.; Zhang, B.; Xu, W. MiR-34a Screened by MiRNA Profiling Negatively Regulates Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway in Aflatoxin B1 Induced Hepatotoxicity. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5 (1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16732.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
121. Fang, Y.; Feng, Y.; Wu, T.; Srinivas, S.; Yang, W.; Fan, J.; Yang, C.; Wang, S. Aflatoxin B1 Negatively Regulates Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway through Activating MiR-33a. PLoS One 2013, 8 (8), e73004. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073004.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
122. Merrick, B. A.; Chang, J. S.; Phadke, D. P.; Bostrom, M. A.; Shah, R. R.; Wang, X.; Gordon, O.; Wright, G. M. HAfTs Are Novel LncRNA Transcripts from Aflatoxin Exposure. PLoS One 2018, 13 (1), e0190992. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190992.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
123. Wu, X. M.; Xi, Z. F.; Liao, P.; Huang, H. D.; Huang, X. Y.; Wang, C.; Ma, Y.; Xia, Q.; Yao, J. G.; Long, X. D.; Wu, X. M.; Xi, Z. F.; Liao, P.; Huang, H. D.; Huang, X. Y.; Wang, C.; Ma, Y.; Xia, Q.; Yao, J. G.; Long, X. D. Diagnostic and Prognostic Potential of Serum MicroRNA-4651 for Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma Related to Aflatoxin B1. Oncotarget 2017, 8 (46), 81235–81249. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.16027.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
124. Long, X. D.; Huang, X. Y.; Yao, J. G.; Liao, P.; Tang, Y. J.; Ma, Y.; Xia, Q. Polymorphisms in the Precursor MicroRNAs and Aflatoxin B1-Related Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Mol. Carcinog. 2016, 55 (6), 1060–1072. https://doi.org/10.1002/mc.22350.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
125. Peivasteh-Roudsari, L.; Pirhadi, M.; Shahbazi, R.; Eghbaljoo-Gharehgheshlaghi, H.; Sepahi, M.; Mirza Alizadeh, A.; Tajdar-oranj, B.; Jazaeri, S. Mycotoxins: Impact on Health and Strategies for Prevention and Detoxification in the Food Chain. Food Rev. Int. 2022, 38 (S1), 193–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2020.1858858.Suche in Google Scholar
126. Xu, F.; Baker, R. C.; Whitaker, T. B.; Luo, H.; Zhao, Y.; Stevenson, A.; Boesch, C. J.; Zhang, G. Review of Good Agricultural Practices for Smallholder Maize Farmers to Minimise Aflatoxin Contamination. World Mycotoxin J. 2022, 15 (2), 171–186. https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2021.2685.Suche in Google Scholar
127. Clements, M. J.; White, D. G. Identifying Sources of Resistance to Aflatoxin and Fumonisin Contamination in Corn Grain. J. Toxicol. Toxin Rev. 2004, 23 (2–3), 381–396. https://doi.org/10.1081/TXR-200027865.Suche in Google Scholar
128. Abbas, H. K.; Shier, W. T.; Cartwright, R. D. Effet of Temperature, Rainfall and Planting Date on Aflatoxin and Fumonisin Contamination in Commercial Bt and Non-bt Corn Hybrids in Arkansas. Phytoprotection 2007, 88 (2), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.7202/018054AR.Suche in Google Scholar
129. Dowd, P. F. Insect Management to Facilitate Preharvest Mycotoxin Management. J. Toxicol. Toxin Rev. 2003, 22 (2–3), 327–350. https://doi.org/10.1081/TXR-120024097.Suche in Google Scholar
130. Abbas, H. K.; Zablotowicz, R. M.; Weaver, M. A.; Shier, W. T.; Bruns, H. A.; Bellaloui, N.; Accinelli, C.; Abel, C. A. Implications of Bt Traits on Mycotoxin Contamination in Maize: Overview and Recent Experimental Results in Southern United States. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61 (48), 11759–11770. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf400754g.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
131. Kabak, B.; Dobson, A. D. W.; Var, I. Strategies to Prevent Mycotoxin Contamination of Food and Animal Feed: A Review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2006, 46 (8), 593–619. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408390500436185.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
132. Smaoui, S.; D’Amore, T.; Tarapoulouzi, M.; Agriopoulou, S.; Varzakas, T. Aflatoxins Contamination in Feed Commodities: From Occurrence and Toxicity to Recent Advances in Analytical Methods and Detoxification. Microorganisms 2023, 11 (10), 2614. https://doi.org/10.3390/MICROORGANISMS11102614.Suche in Google Scholar
133. Cai, Q.; Zhu, L.; Chen, P.; Liu, H.; Loh, T. P.; Jia, Z.; Li, J.; Fu, F. Effective Physical Methods for Aflatoxin B1 Removal in Food: A Comprehensive Review. Food Control 2025, 173, 111215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2025.111215.Suche in Google Scholar
134. Pankaj, S. K.; Shi, H.; Keener, K. M. A Review of Novel Physical and Chemical Decontamination Technologies for Aflatoxin in Food. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 71, 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.11.007.Suche in Google Scholar
135. Di Gregorio, M. C.; Neeff, D. V. D; Jager, A. V.; Corassin, C. H.; Carão, Á. C. D. P.; Albuquerque, R. D; Azevedo, A. C. D; Oliveira, C. A. F. Mineral Adsorbents for Prevention of Mycotoxins in Animal Feeds. Toxin Rev. 2014, 33 (3), 125–135. https://doi.org/10.3109/15569543.2014.905604.Suche in Google Scholar
136. Ismail, A.; Gonçalves, B. L.; de Neeff, D. V.; Ponzilacqua, B.; Coppa, C. F. S. C.; Hintzsche, H.; Sajid, M.; Cruz, A. G.; Corassin, C. H.; Oliveira, C. A. F. Aflatoxin in Foodstuffs: Occurrence and Recent Advances in Decontamination. Food Res. Int. 2018, 113, 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.06.067.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
137. Motomura, M.; Toyomasu, T.; Mizuno, K.; Shinozawa, T. Purification and Characterization of an Aflatoxin Degradation Enzyme FromPleurotus Ostreatus. Microbiol. Res. 2003, 158 (3), 237–242. https://doi.org/10.1078/0944-5013-00199.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
138. Liu, D. L.; Yao, D. S.; Liang, Y. Q.; Zhou, T. H.; Song, Y. P.; Zhao, L.; Ma, L. Production, Purification, and Characterization of an Intracellular Aflatoxin-Detoxifizyme from Armillariella Tabescens (E-20). Food Chem. Toxicol. 2001, 39 (5), 461–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-6915(00)00161-7.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
139. Afsah‐Hejri, L.; Hajeb, P.; Ehsani, R. J. Application of Ozone for Degradation of Mycotoxins in Food: A Review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2020, 19 (4), 1777–1808. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12594.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
140. Zheng, H.; Wei, S.; Xu, Y.; Fan, M. Reduction of Aflatoxin B1 in Peanut Meal by Extrusion Cooking. LWT–Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 64 (2), 515–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LWT.2015.06.045.Suche in Google Scholar
141. Mohamed, N. F.; El-Dine, R. S.; Kotb, M. A. M.; Saber, A. Assessing the Possible Effect of Gamma Irradiation on the Reduction of Aflatoxin B1, and on the Moisture Content in Some Cereal Grains. Am. J. Biomed. Sci. 2015, 7 (1), 33–39; https://doi.org/10.5099/aj150100033.Suche in Google Scholar
142. Boudergue, C.; Burel, C.; Dragacci, S.; Favrot, M. C.; Fremy, J. M.; Massimi, C.; Prigent, P.; Debongnie, P.; Pussemier, L.; Boudra, H.; Morgavi, D.; Oswald, I.; Perez, A.; Avantaggiato, G. Review of Mycotoxin-Detoxifying Agents Used as Feed Additives: Mode of Action, Efficacy and Feed/Food Safety. EFSA Support. Publ. 2009, 6 (9), 22E. https://doi.org/10.2903/SP.EFSA.2009.EN-22.Suche in Google Scholar
143. Farkas, Z.; Országh, E.; Engelhardt, T.; Csorba, S.; Kerekes, K.; Zentai, A.; Süth, M.; Nagy, A.; Miklós, G.; Molnár, K.; Rácz, C.; Dövényi-Nagy, T.; Ambrus, Á.; Győri, Z.; Dobos, A. C.; Pusztahelyi, T.; Pócsi, I.; Jóźwiak, Á. A Systematic Review of the Efficacy of Interventions to Control Aflatoxins in the Dairy Production Chain—Feed Production and Animal Feeding Interventions. Toxins (Basel) 2022, 14 (2), 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14020115.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
144. Kinyoro, I. S.; Kaale, L. Technologies to Decontaminate Aflatoxins in Foods: A Review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2024, 59 (10), 6783–6796. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.17435.Suche in Google Scholar
145. Rushing, B. R.; Selim, M. I. Effect of Dietary Acids on the Formation of Aflatoxin B2a as a Means to Detoxify Aflatoxin B1. Food Addit. Contam. 2016, 33 (9), 1456–1467. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2016.1217065.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
146. Kutasi, K.; Recek, N.; Zaplotnik, R.; Mozetič, M.; Krajnc, M.; Gselman, P.; Primc, G. Approaches to Inactivating Aflatoxins—A Review and Challenges. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22 (24), 13322. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222413322.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
© 2025 IUPAC & De Gruyter