Factorial design assisted electrochemical detection of cypermethrin using molecularly imprinted polyaniline

Kavirajaa Pandian Sambasevam; Siti Nor Atika Baharin; Adrina Zulkifli; Muggundha Raoov; Saliza Asman; Ahmad Husaini Mohamed; Tilagam Marimuthu

doi:10.1515/pac-2024-0354

Article

Factorial design assisted electrochemical detection of cypermethrin using molecularly imprinted polyaniline

Kavirajaa Pandian Sambasevam , Siti Nor Atika Baharin , Adrina Zulkifli , Muggundha Raoov , Saliza Asman , Ahmad Husaini Mohamed and Tilagam Marimuthu

Published/Copyright: May 6, 2025

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From the journal Pure and Applied Chemistry Volume 97 Issue 8

Abstract

Cypermethrin (CYP), a widely used pyrethroid insecticide, poses significant risks to human health and aquatic ecosystems due to its extensive application. Despite the advantages of electrochemical sensors, such as simplicity, rapid response, and ease of use, the electrochemically inactive nature of CYP presents a major challenge for direct detection. In this study, a molecularly imprinted polyaniline (MIPANI)-based electrochemical sensor was developed for the sensitive detection of CYP using a label-based approach. A redox probe, potassium ferrocyanide/ferricyanide, was employed to generate signals based on the presence or absence of CYP at the sensor’s electroactive surface, enabling quantitative analysis from aqueous samples. Unlike previous studies relying on one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) approaches, a two-level factorial design was applied to optimize key parameters. Statistical analysis (ANOVA, R ² = 0.9956) confirmed the significant influence of these factors, ensuring a robust and reliable sensor performance. The total electrochemically active surface area analysis confirmed that MIP-eluted exhibited the highest active area, outperforming MIP-rebinded and non-imprinted polymer (NIP) forms. The sensor demonstrated a linear response from 0.01 to 0.5 μM, with a low detection limit (LOD) of 70 nM. Additionally, it exhibited good reproducibility and excellent selectivity against common interfering pesticides.

Keywords: ICYC 2024; optimization; PANI; pyrethroids; response surface methodology

Corresponding author: Kavirajaa Pandian Sambasevam, Advanced Materials for Environmental Remediation (AMER), Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Kampus Kuala Pilah, 72000, Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia; and Electrochemical Material and Sensor (EMaS) Research Group, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, 40450 Selangor, Malaysia, e-mail: kavirajaa@uitm.edu.my

Article note: A collection of invited papers based on presentations at the 9th International Conference for Young Chemists (ICYC 2024) held on 9–11 October 2024 in Penang Malaysia.

Funding source: Kurita Water and Environment Foundation

Award Identifier / Grant number: 23Pmy174

Acknowledgments

Besides that, gratitude is extended to Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Negeri Sembilan for the financial support to attend the conference International Conference for Young Chemists 2024, Penang, Malaysia.

Research ethics: Not applicable.
Informed consent: Not applicable.
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission. K.P. Sambasevam: Conceptualization, Writing – Original draft, Supervision, Funding acquisition; S.N.A. Baharin: Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing; A. Zulkifli: Formal analysis, investigation; M. Raoov: Writing – Review & Editing; S. Asman: Writing – Review & Editing; A.H. Husaini: Methodology; T. Marimuthu: Writing – Review & Editing.
Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: Premium Quillbot licensed by Universiti Teknologi MARA was used to improvise the clarity of language throughout the manuscript.
Conflict of interest: Not applicable.
Research funding: This research was supported in full with Kurita Asia Research Grant (23Pmy174) provided by Kurita Water and Environment Foundation.
Data availability: Not applicable.

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Received: 2024-11-30

Accepted: 2025-04-23

Published Online: 2025-05-06

Published in Print: 2025-08-26

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https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2024-0354

Keywords for this article

ICYC 2024; optimization; PANI; pyrethroids; response surface methodology