Integration of Critical Information Literacy Skills in Academic Libraries in Africa

1 Introduction

The rapid growth and development of new technology have accelerated the production and circulation of information, leading to an increased demand for its consumption in the modern era. This shift necessitates the continual development of new skills, making lifelong learning essential, particularly for students in higher education, who require on-going guidance and regular updates to their knowledge as part of their academic journey. Moreover, to seek development in any society, citizens are required to be active members in their communities, as part of their daily rights for themselves and their surroundings. Knowledge and information do not need individuals to store it and keep it without questioning it, as it was the case in the past when there were no technological drivers and networks to store it, but only the human brains and interactions, such as the example of oral traditions. However, with the proliferation of computation and advanced tools, humans are expected to be inquisitive and critical of any new information or knowledge as a purposeful way to advance in the sciences, academic fields, and also in all aspects and domains of life. In the book “How the World Works,” Chomsky, Barsamian, and Naiman (2011), discuss the effect of giving access to information in relation to democracy, the authors state that “a democratic communication system would be one that involves large-scale public participation, and that reflects both public interests and real values like truth, integrity and discovery” (p. 163), which they argue can be achieved by transparency to information and open-access to it, but more importantly by determining actions based on it. In other words, democracy thrives not just on knowing, but on doing something with what is known.

In library and information science school programmes, most students are taught to be information providers, however, providing information literacy to library users without questioning the source of the shared information can have drastic consequences on society. Hence, the need to redefine the roles and actions that librarians need to perform as not only ‘servers’ of their community but as ‘actors’ of change and active integration in the society. Libraries and librarians are no longer needed as ‘neutral’ institutions and professionals delivering ways to find information, but instead, they are required to significantly undertake serious moves and participate as critical members, who can advise and advocate for critical thinking. Gibson et al. (2017) argue that the notion of library neutrality is historically inaccurate and that choosing not to address issues affecting communities is an active decision that contradicts the core values of librarianship. As a result, Critical Information Literacy (CIL) has significantly evolved, advancing the concept of information by incorporating an objective examination of its various dimensions particularly how social, cultural, economic, and political factors shape the creation and classification of knowledge. As noted by Drabinski and Tewell (2019), this approach critically examines ‘the systems of power’ involved in the production, distribution, and consumption of information. Bouaamri and Hajdu (2021) point out that the organization of knowledge “reflects the societal and cultural behaviours of the population shaping it” (p. 145). Tewell (2015), citing Drabinski and Kumbier (2010), notes that in higher education, there are more possibilities to do ‘extensive corporation’ of critical library directions.

In Africa, critical information literacy as a concept is yet to be embraced by most higher education institutions. From the numerous documentations, published papers, reports, conference proceedings and research conducted in Africa, there is very little mentioned about Critical Information Literacy. For example, Mutegi, Oyieke, and Nduku (2025), in their study titled “Framework to Enhance Critical Information Literacy in University Libraries in Kenya,” equate Critical Information Literacy with information retrieval skills, user education, and information fluency, an interpretation that contradicts the fundamental principles of Critical Information Literacy. The continent is still grapple to incorporate information literacy in their respective programmes (Anunobi & Ukwoma, 2016; Baro, 2011; Baro & Zuokemefa, 2011; Wilfred Chanakira, 2018; Chigwada, 2020) while the rest of the world is forging ahead inculcating Critical Information Literacy. Downey (2016) argues that a lack of Critical Information Literacy skills limits learners’ abilities to amalgamate with their social surroundings. Smith (2013) asserts that Critical Information Literacy enables learners to develop a well-judgemental approach in life that can enable them to establish social justice among themselves, develop great leadership attributes, and equally make people more informed due to its multidisciplinary approach. As such, this study advocates that African countries should consider introducing Critical Information Literacy in their academic institutions, to enable learners to appreciate the value of information as a concept that elicits development, brings social changes, and opens citizens’ minds, as well as dematerializing information as just an item. Smith (2013, p. 23), citing Cope (2010), implies that Critical Information Literacy “empowers people through their abilities to question dominant values and beliefs in society.” With the current availability of numerous sources of information around the globe, learners are expected not only to be able to locate information but also to be able to evaluate what is relevant and what is not. For instance, many authors including Owolabi, Adeleke, Ajayi, and Adesina (2020), Otike, Barát, and Kiszl (2022a) have alleged that Africa has been widely targeted by predatory publishers due to a lack of appropriate criteria for evaluating information sources that are available on the internet. Therefore, this study is a result of the aforementioned issues that form the backbone of it; it focuses on the importance of the integration of Critical Information Literacy skills in academic libraries as a roadmap in enhancing social changes to learners in Africa. This study is significant since it is going to set a benchmark upon which other future studies on Critical Information Literacy in Africa will base their studies on.

2 Methodology

This study adopted a literature review methodology, where current and past research relevant to the topic was systematically examined and analyzed to identify prevailing themes, theoretical frameworks, research gaps, and methodological approaches. Snyder (2019), citing Baumeister and Leary (1997), Tranfield, Denyer, and Smart (2003), notes that “literature review can broadly be described as a more or less systematic way of collecting and synthesizing previous research.” The authors argue that the literature review method is more relevant when conducting a multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary research that tends not to have sufficient collective evidence in a particular research topic or study.

To ensure a rigorous and comprehensive literature review for the study, a hybrid retrieval approach combining systematic and purposive methods was employed. This strategy balanced the need for comprehensive coverage with the inclusion of specialized, regionally grounded literature. The systematic literature retrieval involved structured searches using Boolean logic and controlled vocabulary. A structured literature search was conducted to collect scholarly and policy-relevant materials addressing information literacy, critical information literacy, misinformation, information in Africa, and Critical theory within the context of African higher education. Searches were carried out across multiple academic and institutional databases to ensure both breadth and depth. A purposive retrieval strategy was employed to capture high-quality grey literature, policy reports, and region-specific insights that might not be indexed in mainstream academic databases. This involved manual searches of institutional repositories. Relevant documents were also sourced from international organizations, including UNESCO and IFLA. To further enhance the comprehensiveness of the literature base, snowballing and citation tracking through platforms like Google Scholar were used to identify both foundational and recently published influential works. Wohlin (2014) observes that in literature reviews, snowballing enhances the thoroughness of the search process by identifying additional relevant studies through citation tracking.

The following platforms were prioritized:

Documents were selected based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure relevance and academic rigor. The study mainly focused on information sources that had been published between 2000 and 2025, and that were peer-reviewed or institutionally validated, and focused on themes such as information literacy, libraries, misinformation, LIS education, or higher education, particularly within African or broader global South contexts. Excluded materials included blogs and individual websites lacking peer review or institutional credibility, as well as publications from predatory journals, identified using tools such as the DOAJ and Cabell’s blacklist. Additionally, sources unrelated to the scope of critical information literacy or African higher education were omitted. From an initial pool of (one hundred and fifty) 150 documents retrieved through database and manual searches, (Fifty) 50 were excluded after title, abstract, and source credibility screening. This resulted in a final set of (one hundred) 100 documents used for analysis, comprising peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, policy briefs, and institutional reports. These materials were analyzed qualitatively to identify recurring themes, theoretical perspectives, and emerging trends relevant to the study’s objectives.

3 Critical Information Literacy

The introduction of the internet and online publishing has made the exchange and access to information easy; university students and academicians are subjected to massive access to information; moreover, the dependence on reading physical books to access information is no longer the norm. Bouaamri, Otike, and Barátné Hajdu (2022) argue that the wide access to the internet and digital resources has posed challenges to the way information is retrieved, organized, and utilized. As such, learners need to be very careful and critical when accessing this vast amount of information. Beatty and Hernandez (2019, p. 282) argue, “Critical Information Literacy rests upon a social justice platform and takes a critical approach to teaching and learning that recognizes the importance of explicitly addressing power and identity issues.” The author further alludes that the main objective of higher education should be to instil the virtue of equality among learners.

According to Tewell (2015) citing Simmons (2005), CIL taught in higher education has per purpose to acquaint students of the partisan character of information that can be adapted “to the discourse of their chosen discipline” (Pg. 33). However, Andretta (2006) in earlier studies argues that in offering Critical Information Literacies, educators should be wary that the approach used as ‘one approach fits all’ approaches is neither achievable nor sustainable and instead advocates for context-sensitive pedagogies that account for diverse learner needs, disciplines, and socio-cultural backgrounds. Critical Information Literacy, though related to information literacy, is totally different from information literacy, while information literacy tends to describe information as a “thing,” according to Elmborg (2012), Critical Information Literacy tends to evaluate and investigate the information to assert the purpose behind the information (Ward, 2022). In comparison with CIL, we can conclude that Information literacy usually tends to focus on search processes and not the evaluation and synthesis. It tends to focus on the “how,” on the contrary; Downey (2016) reveals that Critical Information Literacy seems to be a criticism of traditional information literacy.

It tends to evaluate the types and sources of information on different scales, and from different perspectives (Swanson, 2004). Elmborg (2002) observes that, unlike other types of libraries, the work of academic librarians is not limited to reference instructions (p.455). The necessity of being not just a server to students but also a teacher for academic libraries implicates not just the transfer of information and knowledge skills that the students can use, but moreover, make them think critically about how the information is constructed and what environmental powers are applied to it (Elmborg, 2002). Doyle-Wilch and Miller (1992), as cited by Elmborg (2002), declare that knowledge is built through experiences that humans endure, which makes it unfree from biases, power, and other prejudices. Furthermore, Elmborg (2002) implies that reference academic librarians should seek to know how the exchange of information happens and how it is acquired and refined by humans (Moody & Carter, 1999; as cited in Elmborg, 2002).

4 Critical Theory in LIS Education

The need for critical theory in Library and Information Sciences (LIS) is crucial in the modern industrialised era that is controlled by economic, political, social, and cultural powers, which makes information in itself questionable. According to Leckie, Given, and Buschman, (2010, p. vii), critical theory is associated with the Social Research Institute created in 1923 within the University of Frankfurt, and which later on became the home of many thinkers who were more concerned about the critical social aspects of life. Leckie et al. (2010, p. vii), citing Dahms (2007), indicate that critical theory opposes the traditional theory and its ways of taking apart any phenomena as an isolated thing from its social, economic and political environment. It takes its foundations in Marxist “analysis of the mode of production” (Leckie et al., 2010, p. viii) with broader critical perspectives toward social and cultural emphasis as a whole within societies. It is in itself affected by social and cultural environments that make it doubtful in its very nature and unneutral (Leckie et al., 2010, p. viii).

LIS education and research are still confined to the traditional thinking that holds its advancement compared to other humanity and social fields (Krtalić & Mandl, 2019). To assume that, nowadays, libraries are neutral bodies and institutions is kind of a falsity, and to presume that libraries and librarianship education and research are independent from any political, social, cultural, and economical association and impact is also a deception, as in the present era, libraries are connected to governmental bodies. Libraries are playing an intermediate role between the people/citizens and political institutions (Tushnet, 2005). Libraries hold and promote many policies that are advocated by their surroundings. Hence, they cannot be neutral; therefore, the necessity of critical theory within the LIS field.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs) support in many ways the active implications of citizens and foster the participation of individuals in a democratic environment as part of a necessary process for any country’s development. In this sense, many libraries try to inculcate the UN SDGs as part of their work by introducing programmes that align with similar global objectives for marginalized individuals and communities. According to Eryaman (2010), the development of any country depends on the active participation of its members, as well as the governmental actions toward marginalized populations to integrate them into their communities. Eryaman (2010) states that marginalization can hold people’s capacities from being public actors and making a positive impact within society. Tewell (2015, p. 31), citing Elmborg (2006, p. 193), states that critical information literacy helps significantly in placing libraries in accordance with the “democratic values they often invoke” (Elmborg, 2006, p. 193; as cited by Tewell, 2015, p. 31).

5 Information in Africa

The importance of information in any academic circle lies in its dissemination and usage by others; if the generated information is not disseminated, then it has no value. Chavarro, Tang, and Ràfols (2017) argue that in Africa, a lot of research is done; however, due to the ignorance of researchers, most of this research finds its way into non-mainstream journals, which have limited readership, and as such, affects their accessibility and equally their visibility. Gibbs (1995), in earlier studies, observes that developing countries need to strengthen their research publication skills and increase their quality of their research. The author, for instance, argues that the infectious disease “Ebola” in West Africa seems to recur, due to a lack of published works from local researchers. According to Otike et al. (2022a), Callaghan and Nicholson (2020), information if not consciously analysed, especially in predatory journals, it can be harmful to individuals and to the society causing health, civil and criminal actions, the worse being dealing with medical information and healthcare that are not controlled in predatory publishing. Carlsson (2019), in the foreword of the book “Understanding Media and Information Literacy (MIL) in the Digital Age A Question of Democracy,” points out that “authoritarian regimes are using the internet and social media to justify repression, including measures to limit freedom of expression” (p. 7). It is also true that these issues still persist as well in developed countries, however, on a small scale compared with developing countries, which struggle enormously from corruption and moral justice. Schroeder and Hollister (2014) state that social justice can be achieved if resources and power are openly divided within the society (Ross & Rosati, 2006, p. 437; as cited in Schroeder & Hollister, 2014, p. 95). Furthermore, the authors discuss another aspect of predatory publishing in predatory journals that is related to the lack of supervision and peer-review, which leads to propagating false information. According to Owolabi et al. (2020, p. 2), predatory publishing in Nigeria is “contributing negatively to the development of academic research,” hence, the need to evaluate the awareness of information and knowledge about predatory publishing among students, academics, and especially academic librarians. Otike, Bouaamri, and Hajdu Barát (2022b) allude that the lack of adequate information literacy in the academic field in African developing countries leads to disseminating mis- and disinformation through predatory journals. Furthermore, in a recent study about plagiarism in Morocco, El Bairi, El Kadmiri, and Fourtassi (2024) indicate that the high rate of plagiarism in Morocco’s higher education is mostly due to the ignorance of students, researchers, and teachers about the different forms of plagiarism. The authors assert that the lack of information literacy, the poor skills in paraphrasing and citing, lead academics to fall into unintentional plagiarism, which can lead to the end of their academic career. The unconsciousness about certain aspects of information, such as the source and reliability of information that is due to the turbulent dissemination of information, makes the population very vulnerable to information disorders (Otike et al., 2022b). The reason behind information disorders in Africa is mainly due to the African education system, especially in higher education, which seems not to form and shape the critical thinking of students to question the reliability of any information they come across. Moahi (2012) argues that the education system in Africa makes learners lack a sense of creativity. As such, it is negatively impacting learners’ minds to be idle in questioning any acquired information or knowledge.

6 Information Literacy in LIS Education in Africa

The importance of information literacy cannot be overemphasized. Blummer and M. Kenton (2014) argue that the gigantic access to information calls for extensive information literacy skills programmes among educators. Wema and Hepworth (2007) note that there has been persistence in the development of Information Literacy programmes in the world. The authors indicate that more countries are embracing the importance of having Information literacy among their population. van’t Hof, Sluijs, Asamoah-Hassan, and Agyen-Gyasi (2010) allude that education is the ultimate goal towards long-life learning, and Information Literacy skills are the trajectory towards its achievement; as such, Information Literacy skills play a pivotal role in lifelong learning in institutions of higher education. Since the introduction of Information Literacy in the 1970s, many developed countries have fully adopted it, a movement further accelerated by President Obama’s proclamation of October as National Information Literacy Month (Elmborg, 2012; Jacobs & Berg, 2011). Importantly, this recognition has persisted beyond Obama’s presidency. As Westcott (2019) points out, even though President Donald Trump’s administration appeared to shift away from several of Obama’s policies, particularly those related to Africa, the annual observance of Information Literacy Month in October has continued without interruption. UNESCO, NFIL, and IFLA (2005) reveal that in 2005, in the Alexandria Proclamation of 2005, information literacy and lifelong literacy were declared as the beacons of the information society. However, in Africa, the conundrum associated with the development of Information literacy among countries is rampant. Tilvawala, Myers, and Andrade (2009), in a research conducted about Information literacy in Kenya, argue that Kenya lacks proper mechanism to enhance information literacy, on the contrary, Wema and Hepworth (2007) state that countries like Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and Nigeria have well established Information Literacy programmes. The issue revolving around Information Literacy seems to be in total confusion in Africa; no country seems to be satisfied with the efforts that are being undertaken in ensuring that their respective country has gained the necessary information literacy prowess. Despite all these developments, the uptake of information literacy in the African continent in Higher education has been dwindling. Baro (2011) notes that the issue of information literacy in African Higher education is worrying, as very few school libraries offer information literacy as a standalone curriculum. Dulle (2004) as cited by Baro (2011) points out that most universities in Africa practice library orientation and user education instead of information literacy. Eze and Aduba (2022), in recent studies on information literacy education in library schools in Nigeria, observed that there is a changing trend where library schools have started offering information literacy as a standalone curriculum; however, despite these progresses, most of the schools had inadequate infrastructure to sufficiently support the curriculum. Anunobi and Ukwoma (2016) note that the basic idea behind advocating for information literacy in universities, especially in Africa, is to ensure that learners do not only become consumers of generated information, but also become creators of new knowledge. As such, they will be able to be exposed to new ways and means of becoming lifelong learners. Although a lot has been discussed about information literacy in African countries, little is known about Critical Information Literacy in Africa. Hence, the need to take action to develop academic skills in CIL that can serve in everyday life as well.

7 The Necessity of Critical Information Literacy for the Development of African Countries

The value of education is to develop people’s minds and enable them to use their learnt information to better their lives and societies. Consequently, Critical Information Literacy enables individuals to “understand the underlying messages in the information they encounter, and to think critically about where they get information from” (Smith, 2013, p. 23). Namdas (2023) in the paper titled “Role of Artificial Intelligence in Information Literacy: Enhancing Digital Literacy Skills” argues that in the current Artificial Intelligence age, there is the ultimate importance of critically evaluating all information provided to ensure authenticity of the sources. As such, Scott-Branch, Laws, and Terzi (2023) highlight the importance of AI literacy in higher education and the role of librarians in fostering research skills development with AI literacy as part of information literacy. Flierl (2024) argues that the rapid advancement of generative AI presents both challenges and opportunities for information literacy professionals, emphasizing the urgent need to identify and address the most pressing questions in this evolving landscape. The author identifies key questions such as how AI affects our ability to evaluate information, what new literacies are needed to navigate AI-generated content, and how education systems should adapt to equip individuals with critical thinking skills in an AI-driven world. In Africa, for instance, most leaders tend to misinform citizens (Ahmed, Madrid-Morales, & Tully, 2022; Wasserman & Madrid-Morales, 2019), and this always brings into question the level of Critical Information Literacy (CIL) among most African citizens. Karan, Hartford, and Coates (2017), citing BBC (2015), reveal that the former South African president Jacob Zuma misinformed South Africans that taking a shower, immediately after having sex with an HIV-infected person, prevents one from contracting the disease. McKay (2022), on the other hand, notes that Kenyan leaders always use fake news to gain political mileage during presidential elections and also to instigate violence among citizens. Sayadi (2019) explains how the Moroccan government and government supporters used mainly social media to target and silence Rif activists through misinformation and fake news. With the widespread of information around the globe, it is imperative that learners should be able to critically evaluate all accessible information, due to the fact that the current information will be a source of reference in the future. Africa Center for Strategic Studies (2021) notes that there is rampaging misinformation in Africa, which is leading to a lot of information distortion in that region.

The purpose of critical information literacy is “to identify and take action upon forms of oppression, and proposes to undertake this work by engaging with local communities” (Drabinski & Tewell, 2019, p. 1), which is one of the most critical tasks for libraries, primarily academic one, as they are assisting and constantly forming new generations of students who are supposed to take the lead later on. Training on the ethics of information and how to critically analyse it in constructive ways is very crucial in African universities, especially in the last decade, many research studies and reports have indicated the high numbers of predatory journals, as well as a high rate of plagiarism in developing countries.

Therefore, there is a need that has to be fulfilled in order to reduce the gaps between developing and developed countries. The inequalities between developing and developed countries in terms of opportunities are not only a consequence of the absence of skills and competences, but more likely, because of the lack and limitation of critical training in higher education that blocks students, researchers, and teachers from advancing in their careers.

8 Advantages of Critical Information Literacy

Critical Information Literacy, as seen in this study, plays a great part in the formation of individuals to become creative thinkers, not only for academic purposes, but also for long life learning, social, economic, and political endeavours. As such, it should be inculcated into institutions of learning in Africa. Some of the advantages of integrating Critical Information Literacy in academic libraries in Africa are;

• Revamp academic libraries meaning and purpose: academic libraries are considered to be the engines behind the access, utilization, generation, and dissemination of information. Otike and Barát (2021) assert that academic libraries are the iconic institution upon which learners have access to reliable and genuine information; the authors referred to the academic library as a symbol of truth. As such, academic libraries and librarians are to be the first ambassadors of Critical Information Literacy. With adequate Critical Information Literacy skills, academic librarians will be able to subscribe to and acquire authentic information resources for their institutions, which are not predatorily published nor plagiarised. They will also be able to pass the same knowledge to the library users since they are considered information experts in the field of information. Agava and Underwood (2020) argue that professionally trained and qualified librarians are key human resources in handling library users effectively.

• Open-minded society: The fact that Critical Information Literacy exposes learners into thinking and evaluating the value and purpose of each piece of information they have access to, makes learners become open-minded, as such, they are able to focus and critique any information that they come across to. Ward (2022, p. 54) asserts that “Critical Information Literacy does not rely on a source’s reputation alone to give that source credibility.” For instance, with the wide availability of websites, repositories, blogs, wikis, and social media, learners should be able to understand that not all information available on the internet is factual. Information is generated on webpages for various reasons, and as such, a keen evaluation needs to be taken into consideration before sharing or utilizing some of the available information. Jamieson and Albarracín (2020) note that earlier US president Donald Trump used the media to mislead and misinform the public about the Coronavirus as a strategic move to gain popularity. Boudry and Coyne (2016) indicate that jihad war activists equally use religious belief to corrupt the congregation’s minds using factual claims that anyone who participates in a Jihad war and dies during the war will get 72 virgins in heaven. Hence, the necessity for CIL cannot be ignored. Wasserman and Madrid-Morales (2019), in research carried out in Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa, argue that most African countries use fake news to support the political agenda and also to initiate war and rivalry among communities. Hicks (2013) points out that including CIL in foreign language education allows students to analyse “the social practices that both define and bind information, on the cultural context that affects the interpretation of an information source, or on the concept of authority impacting information,” and therefore, “information becomes one of the cultural subsystems through which students can reflect on differences between languages” (p. 58).

• Develops learners to be multidisciplinary focused: Rogers (2013) notes that the combination of critical thinking and information literacy as an instruction method enables learners to have an interdisciplinary focus. Downey (2016, p. 5) argues that “Critical Information Literacy does not just consider the subject discipline, but also the way that information is situated within a system of power relationships.” As such, it is able to develop a versatile individual who is able to adjust to different social, economic, and political environments. Schroeder and Hollister (2014) question the capabilities of librarians who do not have knowledge about critical theory to serve and get involved with current issues that are rising in their communities. The authors state that critical theory can be of great assistance and support to librarians to advocate for social justice. Hence, the a necessity of encouraging multidisciplinary research and studies in higher education in African countries. In other studies, Martin and Sheehan (2018) equated librarians to “jack of all trades and master of none,” the authors point out that there is a need to develop librarians to have an interdisciplinary approach and not just be confined to their traditional role.

• Enhance innovation and creativity: Through Critical Information Literacy, students are able to doubt, evaluate, and question any information they find; this process will foster their searching abilities by making them open to other approaches and perspectives from different fields, which helps in developing new ideas and actions that can be used for further research. Fountain (2013) alludes that critical information literacy provides learners with innovative skills that are not only beneficial in the class setting, but also relevant to the outside world. Teaching critical information literacy to university students, academics, as well as teachers is very helpful and can assist in creating new collaborations with other fields. Bouaamri et al. (2022) point out that collaboration and partnership are the ultimate ways that libraries should endeavour to follow so as to achieve sustainable and achievable objectives. Observing the powers under which information and knowledge are constructed is very significant, as it allows students to be more tolerant in conflictual situations and pushes them to create new ways and modes of adaptation in different settings.

• Challenges emanating from Artificial Intelligence: With the advancement of technology and the entrance of AI, there is a need to critically evaluate what is shared on the web (Wang, Wang, & Siau, 2025). As such, Critical Information Literacy (CIL) is increasingly vital in the age of artificial intelligence, where information is shaped, filtered, and often created by algorithms. CIL equips individuals with the skills to critically evaluate the credibility of sources, understand how AI influences what information is presented, and recognize biases embedded in digital tools (Mutegi et al., 2025). It empowers people to question the ethical use of data, navigate misinformation, especially AI-generated content like deepfakes, and engage more thoughtfully in civic and democratic processes. Furthermore, CIL promotes adaptability and lifelong learning (Kucuksuleymanoglu, 2025), helping individuals remain critical and informed in rapidly evolving information environments, while also advocating for more inclusive and equitable knowledge practices.

9 Findings of this Study

This paper establishes that, although the importance of Critical Information Literacy in academic libraries is evident, there are several impediments to its effective adoption, especially in Africa. These challenges have been summarized as follows.

10 Impediments in Integration of CIL in Academic Libraries

The integration of Critical Information Literacy in academic Libraries in Africa is a noble idea; however, for integration to be elusive, it has to be initiated. The integration, just like Information Literacy, cannot take place in a vacuum; it needs a lot of planning, teamwork, collaboration, partnership, and benchmarking among other factors. However, the snail pace that Africa has taken to implement Information Literacy skills in higher learning institutions, elicits a lot of doubt if the integration of Critical Information Literacy in academic libraries will be elusive. Some of the impediments to integrating Critical Information Literacy in academic libraries are as follows.

1. Inadequate Policies: The dependence of academic libraries on their parent organizations seems to be bringing bottlenecks in the advancement of libraries. Academic libraries are like orphans that depend on the goodwill of the parent organizations, and as such, if there is no support from the parent organization, the quality of learning and the reputation of the prospective university and graduates suffer. Academic libraries, especially in Africa, require well-established and adequate policies to support their functions. Ocholla and Ocholla (2016) in a paper titled “Does Open Access Prevent Plagiarism in Higher Education?” noted that universities had well-laid policies in place to fight plagiarism, but the policies were silent on the role of librarians; as such, the policies were not practicable. Most universities in Africa do not place much focus on the contents of the policy documents. Lumande, Tjedombo, and Oluka (2014) assert that the University of Botswana implemented the Information Literacy program in the university library prior to the approval and recognition of the document by their university management. Just as in the inculcation of information literacy policies, academic libraries are likely to be reluctant to enact adequate policies that can govern their operations. In an earlier study on Information Literacy in Tanzania universities, Lwehabura and Stilwell (2008) alluded that the lack of a policy was one of the stumbling blocks in the inculcation of the programme in Tanzania.

2. Laxity to incorporate innovative strategies in Academic Libraries: The speed at which information is generated and consumed is advancing really fast. However, the rate at which academic libraries are adopting this transformation is really slow. Most academic libraries in developing countries are static in development. Otike et al. (2022b) allude that academic libraries are reluctant to incorporate innovative services. According to the authors, they argue that for organizations to adopt change and innovate, they should be ready to accept the transformation of their processes. Dadzie (2007) affirms that academic libraries are supposed to seek innovative ways to cope with new changes. This laxity can also be linked to the fact that academic libraries rely on their parent organizations. It is alarming, for instance, that despite the much-publicised Information Literacy campaign in Africa, the number of universities and colleges that have embraced it is still alarming (Baro, 2011).

3. Inadequately trained staff: For the success of Critical Information Literacy in academic libraries, the libraries ought to have well-trained staff with adequate critical thinking skills. Library schools need to introduce Critical Information Literacy in their respective degree programmes; however, it is saddening that the current trajectory in library schools is more focused on digitization. However, in academic libraries that have adequate staff, Kunene and Mapulanga (2022), citing Onwubiko et al. (2010), note that very few academic libraries’ staff are always ready to mentor their juniors or even have succession plans in place. Molopyane and Fourie (2015) argue that there is a need to offer frequent pedagogical training to teachers, so that they can acclimatise themselves with information literacy skills.

4. Lack of Collaboration and Teamwork: Nkopodi (2002) argues that globalization and limited funds are making universities in Africa engage in competition so as to gain the global market. Marguerite (2020) observes that globally, there is a scramble for Africa’s growing student population, which has elicited competition. Most universities in Africa are in competition among themselves, and as such, this has created laxity to share or partner to work together for a common goal. For instance, very few universities have their library school curriculum on their respective websites. Equally, most academic libraries do not share their policies on their respective websites. As such, it is even difficult to currently articulate how many countries in Africa offer library studies programmes and how many offer special programmes; this issue has also been brought about due to the lack of an African library Association that could be mandated to bring the interests of African universities together. At the respective universities, most university faculty are never willing to collaborate with each other Baro (2011), in a study on information literacy, asserts that most university faculty in Africa are never willing to work with other departments in inculcating Information Literacy in Africa.

5. Resistance to change: The resistance of traditional thinking among librarians and teachers: Musangi et al. (2019), citing Kumar and Tyagi (2014), argue that most organizations fail to prosper due to resistance to change and equally non-visionary leaders and managers who are not able to make decisive decisions. van’t Hof et al. (2010), citing Godwin (2006) and Amalahy et al. (2009), indicate that lack of support from the parent organization in regard to the establishment of library projects always forms part of the stumbling blocks in fulfilling an innovative idea in libraries. With a lack of support, academic libraries will not be able to get funds, not be able to get the necessary resources, both physical and human resources, and finally will not be able to have a policy document in place to formalize the project. It is imperative, therefore, for librarians to be willing to engage in advocacy strategies with their parent organizations.

6. The lack of a multidisciplinary background among library professionals. Schroeder and Hollister’s (2014) results indicate that a small percentage (14%) of librarians and library professionals surveyed are aware of critical theory and critical pedagogy, and this is only from their own interest and personal reading (p. 111). The authors also found out that one-third of the second surveyed group had no idea about critical theory, only librarians who have a background in English literature and history, or other social sciences had apprehension about it.

11 Recommendations on how to Inculcate CIL in Academic Libraries in African Countries

As discussed in the previous section, many challenges face academic libraries when trying to implement critical information literacy. However, these challenges and obstacles can be overcome in steps by taking different measures. As mentioned by Andretta (2006) Critical Information Literacy approach that is used in one country or continent varies; therefore, one integral approach for all might not necessarily be possible. Nevertheless, one thing stands: there is the ultimate need of forming a consensus among the academic libraries, universities, and faculty; therefore, this study offers recommendations that are geared towards the initial process of solving and understanding the issues regarding CIL in higher education institutions in African countries. The following are some of the solutions and recommendations that can be implemented in academic libraries in African countries regarding the integration of CIL for university students, researchers, and established academics and teachers;

• Critical Information Literacy policy: A policy document is a critical document that has to be in place for any successful project to be undertaken. Most projects fail due to a lack of a policy. Otike and Omboi (2010), in earlier studies, indicate that most library projects are never successful due to a lack of adequate policy documents that are meant to support the project's course. They offer appropriate guidance on the procedures that ought to be taken. For instance, in Critical Information Literacy, the policy document will be able to stipulate the staff involved, the collaboration and collaborators, the mandate of the document, resources involved, evaluation procedures, and equally the maturity period of the document, i.e. when the policy document needs to be revised. In short, a policy document is a working document that initiates any project and ensures its success. In Africa, it has been noted that most projects fail due to a lack of policy documents.

• Initiate collaborations: The fight against Critical Information illiteracy requires unity amongst various departments in an academic setting, as such, there is a crucial need for collaboration among the academic library, librarians, and teachers. Academic librarians, library and information professionals, and teachers need to be enlightened on critical theory and critical pedagogy in order to strengthen their own critical thinking and analysis. This enlightenment will be able to elicit collaborations among the teaching departments and the libraries, and therefore, making it easy for them to be able to establish an effective policy that they can use in their respective universities to inculcate Critical Information Literacy. It is only through collaboration that various departments and faculty will be able to get proper directions and guidance on CIL, which will allow them to effectively transpass CIL to students in more fluent ways. Schroeder and Hollister (2014) investigate the acquaintance of librarians regarding critical theory and extract the professional behaviours that are affected by unfamiliarity with critical pedagogy. The authors have found out, through a survey, that there is unfamiliarity and ignorance regarding critical theory and analysis among librarians on how to use them in order to avoid social injustice (p. 91). Therefore, through collaboration, some of this ignorance among librarians can be eliminated. Kiszl and Fodor (2021) argue that in the contemporary era, and with the vast amount of information global, it is not practicable for librarians to know everything; as such, libraries should consider forming collaborations with other research fields.

• Short training, workshops, and seminars: There is a need to integrate frequent seminars, workshops, and training for university teachers from all departments about CIL, in order to make them aware and conscious about the usage of information for, to and with students. Academic teachers are more closely in contact with students as opposed to librarians; moreover, it is also assumed that they have better pedagogical skills in comparison with librarians. Therefore, involving them in library issues will make them great library ambassadors to students. Through seminars and workshops, libraries will be able to establish the information needs of users and also be able to evaluate them. Wijayasundara (2008) opines that the usage of seminars and workshops in libraries creates a great awareness environment to introduce programs and activities. Citing McGuinness (2006), Wijayasundara (2008) alludes to the difficulty in establishing faculty–library partnership that lies behind the attitudes among the faculty and students. As such, the importance of training, workshops, and seminars can be used to bridge these gaps.

• Advocacy: The importance of advocacy is to create awareness and win the learners and academicians on the importance of Critical Information Literacy. In order to have a well-executed advocacy, the academic library needs to establish a clear advocacy plan. Stubbings and Franklin (2006) reveal that for advocacy to be effective, there needs to be a clear strategy in place that stipulates the objectives of the advocacy, establishes the target group, has a strategy for implementation, and finally, evaluation processes. Through advocacy, there is a need to organize visits and round tables outside curriculum sessions on CIL for students and teachers. Such activities can be done in collaboration with academic librarians, so as to bring awareness to students, especially regarding sources of information, how to access, analyse, use, and how to critique them. Advocacy plans will be able to establish a conducive ground through which the academic libraries can be able to win the hearts of the academicians and learners on the importance of CIL as an avenue of developing critical thinkers and enriching learners with social aspects of life. The significance of advocacy will be to ensure that there is goodwill and understanding about the role of Critical Information Literacy in the education system, and the social and political developments of the learners. It will equally be used to gain support from the universities, which are the parent organization that supports the development and funding of academic libraries' activities.

• Role of Library and Information Science Programme: Include critical information literacy and critical theory within the LIS curriculum for all levels (Bachelor, Master, and Doctoral studies). Hicks (2013), citing Elmborg (2013), alludes that most of the studies and research studies about CIL focus only on “first-year writing classes” (p. 51). Hence, there is a need to consider not only first-year students but all levels, as many students do not come from the same faculties, countries, or even their understandings may differ; as such, more time and effort are needed to inculcate critical thinking in their everyday usage of information. Ayoung, Bugre, and Baada (2020) point out that organizations should consider seconding core staff to pursue practical training courses that will benefit libraries. There is also the importance of including in-service training among librarians and teaching staff on literacy for effectiveness.

12 Conclusion

The recognition of the importance of Critical Information Literacy in the present era is crucial. With the high rate of development and dissemination of information and its easy availability that has emanated from the advancement of technologies, it is necessary to identify the forms of powers controlling it, so as to eliminate any possible malicious intentions that can cause harm to any society. Artificial Intelligence (AI) adds another critical dimension to this landscape, as it not only shapes how information is produced and accessed but also automates decision-making processes that can influence public opinion and societal norms. As AI systems curate, filter, and sometimes generate content, it becomes increasingly vital to understand the algorithms behind them, the data they are trained on, and the intentions of those who design and deploy them. Critical Information Literacy must therefore evolve to include awareness of AI’s role in information ecosystems, promoting transparency, accountability, and ethical use to safeguard democratic values and prevent manipulation or bias. Contemporarily, librarians, especially academic librarians, need to recognize that their roles and the role of libraries are no longer neutral and cannot be neutral within the societies, as they are in direct contact with the population they serve. The exchange of information happens, mostly on a daily basis, librarians need to be aware of what kind of information they are delivering and to what extent. Forming the minds of librarians to be critical is not an easy task due to the traditional perception of a librarian being just a server to users without having to analyse the external forces controlling information circulation within society. In Africa, academic librarians need to be more conscious and active in advocating critical thinking to students regarding information, hence the necessity to inculcate Critical Information Literacy, not only in LIS curricula, but for all fields and consecutively at all levels in order to ensure information ethics in academia. Moreover, CIL can be a catalyst that sharpens learners’ minds to advocate for democracy and help reduce inequalities within African societies, by constructively building new generations of leaders and citizens who are able to foresee and evaluate the impact of any propagated information, and how it has consequences on building knowledge, culture, and development inside the African societies. Academic librarians have a significant role to play in developing and enabling the transformation of the students’ minds by making them aware of their current positions and future roles as active citizens in their respective communities.