A review of online communication research in Hungary
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Gergő Háló
Gergő Háló is at the Corvinus University of Budapest and an assistant professor at the National University of Public Service Budapest. Applying socio-critical frameworks, the author specializes in geopolitical and gender inequalities in sciences, academic performance assessment, international frameworks of research assessment, indexing databases, as well as research and higher education policies, applying various methodologies (statistical analysis, network analysis, econometrics).
Abstract
Ever since the mid-nineties, Internet-related communication research has been a growing field in Hungary. Notwithstanding, scholars have so far failed to deliver a systematic overview regarding the historical and topical trends defining the field. To mend this gap, we provide a systematic literature review concerning the main trends and developments of Hungarian online media research as indicated by the most influential journals of the field between 1995 and 2021. Given its historical legacy, Hungary serves as an indicative case study from the socialist and post-socialist Central and Eastern European region, where following the repressive political regime of the Soviet Union, the development of social scientific fields was rendered virtually impossible for decades. In this study, the major research traditions of the field – new media and the Internet; information society; inequalities and the digital divide; education and digital literacy; e-governance; social media; video games; Big Data; algorithms and artificial intelligence – as well as their historical development are assessed. Furthermore, we formulate reflections regarding the results with a high emphasis on current internationalization processes in the region, as well as the prospects of Hungarian communication research within the context of these changes and of the historical-cultural legacies of the country.
1 Introduction
On October 15, 1991, the computer of the Institute for Computer Science and Control of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences connected to the Internet and created the first Hungarian domain, sztaki.hu, on the historical IP address 192.84.225.1 (SZTAKI n.d.). Although joining the network was only available for universities at the time, commercial Internet services soon followed. In 1996, Matáv – the largest Hungarian telecommunication company of the time – introduced the Internet (on a telephone modem-basis; MatávNet) to the wider public, initiating a widespread emergence of new media technologies that has not stopped changing the media environment ever since (Varga 2011). Today, more than 25 years later, the Internet penetration is reaching approximately three quarters of the population above the age of 15 (77.52%), that is, almost 6.5 million Hungarian annual users (NMHH 2021).
Along with this fundamental transformation of the prevailing media environment, related social (and more specifically, communication) scientific research, being unable to interpret the emerging phenomena using traditional theories and tools of communication research, needed to undergo fundamental changes as well. Tölgyesi (2003) proposes a differentiation between pre-web and web-era communication science and draws the line between the two around 1994–95. In fact, ever since this shift of research focus, the general number of studies regarding different social aspects of the Internet and new media has not stopped increasing (e.g., Katona et al. 2021). Furthermore, throughout the years, a distinct line of self-reflexive research appears addressing the role of social sciences within this novel social, cultural, political, as well as economic context these new technologies brought about (Dányi et al. 2004; Kiss 2004). Notwithstanding, the number of systematic-quantitative studies regarding online media research in Hungary is extremely low (Katona et al. 2021), and the overall picture concerning the field is yet to be drawn. The biggest problem such analyses are bound to face is the lack of easily searchable and reliable databases to aid the data collection process. Therefore, existent studies – to avoid comprehensive manual data collection – typically either focus on individual journals without applying any specific filters regarding its contents (Katona et al. 2021), or remain subjective considering the articles being taken into consideration (Kiss 2004). Furthermore, as Hu and Chen (2022) note regarding systematic reviews, although simplistic bibliometrics can help drawing out research patterns, they cannot assess internal (and external) factors affecting the direction of the research. Consequently, a combination of scientific knowledge mapping and qualitative literature review methods is needed.
To mend this gap, we provide a systematic literature review of the main trends and development of Hungarian online media research as indicated by the most influential journals of the field between 1995 and 2021. First, we apply keyword analysis to indicate the major trends of research. Second, based on the results of the keyword analysis, we provide an overview of the core issues and the most prominent topics discussed as well as the development of these traditions. Third, we formulate reflections regarding the results of the analysis with a high emphasis on current internationalization processes within the region and prospects of Hungarian online communication research along these transformations of the academic sphere.
Consequently, we formulate the following research questions:
RQ1:
What are the major topical and methodological trends in Hungarian online media research?
RQ2:
How did the field of Hungarian online media research develop since 1995?
2 Data Collection
In the literature compilation process, we selected articles published in three major Hungarian communication and media journals (i.e., Jel-kép, Információs Társadalom, and Médiakutató) between January 1, 1995, and December 31, 2021, using a list of relevant keywords (e.g., internet, online news, social media, etc.) as “search terms”, and the title, the abstract, and the keywords of the articles as the “search fields”. Our keywords were selected to indicate a variety of articles investigating different aspects of online media and online communication phenomena. As no unified database is available for searching Hungarian publications in this manner, the selection was done manually by browsing through the individual journals’ archives, applying automatic searching methods only where available. The journals were selected as both being amongst the highest-ranking Hungarian communication journals in the official journal ranking of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA 2016), and generally held to be the most relevant Hungarian outlets for online media studies amongst Hungarian researchers (Információs Társadalom [Information Society], Médiakutató [Media Researcher], Jel-kép [Symbol]). The time frame was selected based on Tölgyesi’s (2003) notion of web-era communication science starting around 1995. This year also coincides with the establishment of the first Hungarian online news outlet, Internetto, which many consider to be ground zero for Hungarian online media history (Szakadát 2016; Tófalvy 2016a), as well as the first article relevant to the topic being published in Jel-kép (Tölgyesi 1995). Therefore, as the journals of Információs Társadalom and Médiakutató were both established later on (2001 and 2000, respectively), we were able to assess the totality of relevant literature published in these key journals concerning online communication and media research.
A total of 367 articles were obtained in this manner (Információs Társadalom: 155; Médiakutató: 125; Jel-kép: 87). As papers were hand-selected (eliminating non-academic papers, book reviews, and translations of highly influential articles on the go), no further data cleaning needed to be done, and all the obtained articles entered the analysis.
Within the selected journals, the provision of keywords (and in some cases, of abstracts, even) was not a widely applied practice for a long time. In fact, although Információs Társadalom supplemented publications with the most relevant keywords starting as early as 2005, both Jel-kép and Médiakutató only recently introduced this concept (2016 and 2018, respectively). Keyword analysis (in a narrow sense), consequently, was not applicable in our case. Instead, we implemented text analysis using the titles, the abstracts, and the keywords (where available) of the publications as the corpus. First, we used Text Analyzer by Online-Utility.org to assess the most important keywords in the corpus – a script that measures occurrences of frequent words and phrases in a given text. Second, we eliminated phrases of stop words (e.g., “of”, “the”, etc.) and artifacts of academic writing (e.g., “study”, “analysis”, etc.) from the list. Third, we merged remaining synonyms into one item on the list (e.g., “learning” was merged into “education”; “internet usage” was merged into “internet users”; “computer games” was merged into “video games”). Finally, for the most frequent keywords in the corpus, we counted the number of articles in which the given keyword appears at least once considering the title, the abstract, and the provided keywords of the publications.
3 Findings
3.1 General Overview
Clear trends of the dataset are indicated when considering both the chronological distribution of publications and the frequency of keywords. In terms of publication distribution over the years, a moderate growth trend appears (Figure 1). The lowest output is measured in 1995 (Min = 1), whilst 2015 was the most productive year (Max = 25). Examining the publication distribution by year and by journal (Figure 2), it is indicated that the 2015 maximum (and the following 2016 peak) is the result of all three journals contributing a high number of articles (Jel-kép: 5, 6; Információs táradalom: 10, 6; Médiakutató: 10, 11). The average annual number of publications for the whole dataset is 13.6 (M), while the standard deviation is 7.1 (σ 2 = 50.5). Therefore, as the Relative Standard Deviation is quite high (RSD = 52.3%), we refrain from drawing conclusions on a year-to-year basis and use period averages where applicable.
Total publication distribution by year (1995–2021).
Publication distribution by year and by journal (1995–2021).
The first major increase in the annual number of publications (between 2000 and 2002, see Figure 1) is mostly due to the fact, that Információs Társadalom and Médiakutató were established in those years (2001 and 2000, respectively). Notwithstanding, the general trend of growth is both supported by the fact, that the number of articles published in Jel-kép have significantly increased throughout the corpus, and that even after Információs Társadalom and Médiakutató entered the scene, the general growth remained. Specifically, the average annual number of articles published in Jel-kép shows a 63% increase between the periods before and after the other journals appeared (M96–00 = 2.16/year; M01–21 = 3.52/year), whilst a significant growth in the annual number of articles in the whole dataset is also indicated through bigger periods following 2001 (M02–11 = 15.5/year; M12–21 = 18.6/year).
The second major increase appears between 2013 and 2016. Considering triennial average outputs, to account for the high variance of the dataset (see above), a more than 50% increase is observed here (M11–13 = 14.7/year; M14–16 = 22.7/year). As mentioned earlier, the productivity peak of this period is due to significant contributions from all journals (Figure 2), more specifically, to special issues that thematically examine online media-related topics.
For instance, within these years, Információs Társadalom published thematic issues with cultural technology studies (Tófalvy 2014) and on digital natives and the youth culture of the internet (Csótó et al. 2015), whilst Médiakutató published a special issue titled “The internet as anarchy” (Szilágyi-Gál 2015) that examined notions of freedom of expression in an online context and internet ethics in general, and one with a focus on the Hungarian online media history titled “Digital histories” (Tófalvy 2016b). Other local maxima on Figure 2 are also to be considered the results of special issues. For example, the publication peaks of Információs Társadalom in 2004 and 2007 are due to thematic issues on Internet-science (Karvalics 2004) and e-governance (Molnár and Karvalics 2004a; Pintér 2007a) as well as publishing an issue based on recent Hungarian doctoral theses considering relations of the internet and the concept of information society (Pintér 2007b).
In terms of keyword occurrences, social media, information society, internet user, education, and new media ranked as the top five (Table 1).
Top 12 high frequency keywords.
| Keywords | Articles | Keywords | Articles |
|---|---|---|---|
| Social media | 61 | Digital divide | 14 |
| Information society | 44 | Video games | 13 |
| Internet user | 30 | E-government | 12 |
| Education | 26 | Online media | 11 |
| New media | 22 | Public service | 10 |
| Public administration | 15 | Big data | 8 |
| Young people | 15 | Digital culture | 8 |
Figure 3 shows that four out of the five most frequent keywords are present throughout the entire dataset.
Top five high-frequency keywords distribution by year.
Keywords of education and new media appear first in the dataset (in 1999; Table 2) and then periodically re-occur without orienting towards any clear trend. Information society and internet users are also adopted early in the dataset (2000; Table 2), however, they both appear to be slightly declining in the past decade: for the 2000–2010 period, information society and internet users appear, respectively, in 26 and 17 articles, whilst for the 2011–2021 period the same numbers drop to 18 (−30.8%) and 13 (−23.5%) publications. On the other hand, social media – that is, the most frequent keyword in the whole corpus (Table 1) – only appears in 2010 for the first time. Notwithstanding, from 2013 onwards, it consistently and undoubtably dominates the field (Figure 3).
Year in which each keyword was used for the first time.
| Keywords | Year | Keywords | Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| New media | 1999 | Digital divide | 2003 |
| Education | 1999 | Public administration | 2004 |
| Internet user | 2000 | E-government | 2004 |
| Information society | 2000 | Online media | 2006 |
| Young people | 2002 | Social media | 2010 |
| Public service | 2002 | Video games | 2010 |
| Digital culture | 2002 | Big data | 2012 |
Besides the top five phrases, other keywords are also extensively featured at different periods of time. Digital divide and digital inequality appear quite early in the data (2003, 2007); however, they seem to lose relevance in time (after 2008 and 2010). Similarly, network society (and social network) is mostly featured within the period between 2003 and 2013. Other keywords, after first appearing, stay mostly relevant throughout. First, a cluster of typically Web 2.0-related keywords appear around 2010 and stay prominent afterwards (e.g., Web 2.0, 2008; social media, 2010; video games, 2010). Second, a distinct field of keywords concerning public service (2002), e-government (2004), and public administration (2004) within the context of the information superhighway emerges not long into the new millennium and is associated with several publications throughout. Most recently, novel keywords of Big Data (2012), algorithms (2015), and artificial intelligence (2018) seem to arise. Furthermore, although publications concerning young people appear as early as 2002 (Table 2), 67% (n = 10) of these were published very recently, following 2015. Notwithstanding, local peaks in the dataset can, once again, be attributed to thematic issues being published within the key journals. Moreover, the general high frequency of information society as a keyword – at least partly – stems from the fact that one of the journals directly addresses phenomena concerning the notion (Információs Társadalom [Information Society]). This is especially articulated within the years following the journal’s establishment (2001–2007; see Figure 3).
Finally, we rendered the list of the most productive authors in online media research in Hungary to assess key figures forming the publication field based on our dataset (Table 3). Notwithstanding, for a multiplicity of reasons, this list in no case to be confused for ranking excellence. First, as no reliable database is available to assess impact measures for our data (i.e., citations, downloads, etc.), we solely relied on publication output. Second, although in the Hungarian context these journals are to be considered the key outlets of the field, that is by no means true for the international research community. In fact, based only on our dataset, it is impossible to identify those authors who publish more or exclusively in international journals and therefore lack publications in our corpus, as well as those who publish a great deal of articles almost exclusively in Hungarian journals and consequently have virtually no international visibility. This latter notion, being key to the future of Hungarian online media research, is discussed in more detail in Section 4 (Reflections).
Top 12 most productive authors.
| Author | Publication count | Author | Publication count |
|---|---|---|---|
| Katalin Fehér | 11 | Judit Bayer | 6 |
| Zoltán Szűts | 11 | Tamás Tófalvy | 6 |
| Csilla Herendy | 10 | Róbert Pintér | 6 |
| János Tölgyesi | 9 | Mihály Gálik | 5 |
| Márton Iványi | 9 | László Karvalics | 5 |
| Jinil Yoo | 7 | Róbert Tardos | 4 |
| Szilárd Molnár | 7 | Tamás Bokody | 4 |
3.2 Core Issues
In the following sections, based on the trends identified by the keyword analysis, we provide an overview of the core issues and the most prominent fields in Hungarian online media research.
3.2.1 New Media and the Internet
The first ever publications concerning new media and the Internet in Hungary were starting to appear in the mid-nineties. As Tölgyesi (1995) noted, although there were discussions about the communication capabilities of personal computers beforehand, and a wide range of ideas have already been put forward, the actual practice could only be studied for a couple of years, as it was only in 1993 – following the change of regime and with significant foreign support – that the international computer network reached Hungarian universities for the first time. Notwithstanding, the number of publications rapidly increased within these years (see Figure 1), bringing forth a variety of related notions and ideas. In an early line of articles published in Jel-kép, Tölgyesi (1995, 1996a, 1996b, 1998, 1999, 2001 provides insight into the international communication field concerning this new medium, as well as the possibilities of local adaptation. These works include publications on the notions of multimedia and hypermedia (Tölgyesi 1995), the more general international academic dialogue concerning the Internet (Tölgyesi 1996a), and several articles on media convergence and the broadcasting potential of the information superhighway (Tölgyesi 1998, 1999, 2001). Calling out the importance of the emerging new media and providing first-hand analyses on the related phenomena in Hungarian, his works are to be considered pivotal in the development of Internet-related communication research in Hungary.
The momentum for the field’s development – following these initial publications of Tölgyesi – was quickly amplified by others. Moldován (1997) traces how traditional news outlets are adopting to the large-scale ICT-based transformation of the media environment, Szántai (1998) examines the international and domestic trends of Internet-based advertising, whilst Gálik (1999) scrutinizes the impact of convergence and of the Internet on the media market. Besides the substantial transformations of the media environment, notions of Internet law and policies also emerge as focal points of interest for these initial studies. On one hand, for instance, in a rather techno-pessimistic manner, Nagy (1997) discusses copyright issues arising alongside the Internet and raises fundamental questions whether intellectual property on the Internet is protected by copyright, who is considered an author within this new context, and how dealing with copyright infringement on the Internet is attainable. Similarly, Lustyik (2000), in one of the first articles ever published in Médiakutató, highlights issues of easily accessible Internet pornography and children in the United States, with a specific focus on regulatory options and constraints. On the other hand, and in a characteristically techno-optimistic fashion, P. Molnár (2001, 2002 promotes the emerging new media as an outlet for freedom, and free speech, in particular. He notes (2002, p. 79) that – as a general principle of Internet law – traditional media regulations should be avoided, and instead of content regulation (with exceptions proving the rule, e.g., Internet pornography), market competition and accessibility should be prompted.
Notwithstanding, the general ambiguity of expectations concerning the Internet – that is, a divide between optimists and pessimists – is clearly shown in these early stages of adaptation. For instance, Fehér (1999, 2006 renders an assessment of metaphors applied in Hungarian news to describe virtual reality and finds a wide variety of concepts with both optimistic (dream, journey) and pessimistic (e.g., drug, addiction) traits. Similarly, Krajcsi (2000) provides a list of the commonly voiced concerns of the Internet at the time, including issues with the reliability and credibility of information online, the risks of losing sense of reality, alienation, losing identity, increased aggression, emerging pathologies and other extremities, and the dehumanization of communication. Angelusz and Tardos (1999) finds that the emergence of these new technologies are most welcome within those demographics where the PC and the Internet have already become more widespread and the use of these technologies has already brought about several professional and other benefits (i.e., individuals with a degree, younger generations). Most pessimism, on the other hand, is found at the older and uneducated demographics, who are generally more skeptic about the changes technical innovation promote and have personally gained the least through the spread of these new tools.
In general, most of the above-mentioned articles are theoretical in nature – a distinct characteristic of the field of online communication research, even later on. The few existing empirical studies in these early years typically focus on the domestic spread of the new technology and general patterns of Internet use and of online media consumption (e.g., Angelusz and Tardos 1999; Szántai 1998; Tardos 2003).
3.2.2 Information Society
The predominance of theoretical papers is especially articulated amongst articles related to the notion of information society. Here, the bulk of research – although not exclusively – is provided by the journal Információs Társadalom. In fact, within the introduction to the very first issue of the journal (2001/1), the editors specifically highlight a general commitment towards theoretical approaches as one of the journal’s main aspirations (Karvalics et al. 2001). A recent topic analysis of the articles published in the journal since 2005, conducted by Katona et al. (2021), also seem to support the claim that in 20 years Információs Társadalom has not deviated from these original goals: nearly one-fifth of all articles involved (including book reviews, interviews etc.) was subsumed to the topic of the theory of information society, rendering it the largest theme throughout the analysis (Katona et al. 2021 p. 24).
As the notion of information society can be approached from numerous aspects – and accommodates a wide variety of related concepts and ideas – the topics of the studies in this line of research are rather diverse. For instance, in one of the earliest publications, Pintér (2000) provides a comprehensive overview on the main concept based on Castell’s original trilogy of The Information Age, while later on, he connects the notion of risk society to information society (Pintér 2002). Similarly, Karvalics (2001) explores the history of science concerning information society and traces the focal concept back to Tadao Umesao (Umesao and Toh 1992). S. Molnár (2001) sets out to critically assess arguments concerning how network communication can facilitate the accumulation of certain elements of social capital. He promotes the view that the communication via digital networks has a positive effect on community engagement and participation capital – providing aid to the declining small community organizations and the civil society in general. Similar optimistic views are echoed by Bartha (2002) and Dessewffy (2002), where the former introduces Hampton’s Netville (Hampton 2001), whilst the latter – after considering the communal benefits digital networks accommodate – raises important issues concerning unequal access and participation, connecting the theoretical tradition of information society to the growing line of empirical research considering the digital divide.
The topical diversity of the works concerning information society, in general, is apparent. Majó (2006) analyses various key aspects of the concept (e.g., technology, scientific thinking, resources, economics, knowledge, etc.) only to indicate how far the notion of information society goes beyond information-technology and mere digital infrastructure. In fact, one reoccurring theme across these theoretical papers concerns the potential role social sciences play in the context of network communication and the Internet. Such works – with a strong self-reflexive edge – are found throughout the corpus regarding sociology (Dányi et al. 2004), communication science (Kiss 2004), as well as the study of law (Nagy 2004). In general, the theoretical tradition of information society is most notably present in the early years of online media research, especially during the period following the 2001 establishment of Információs Társadalom (see Figure 1; also, Katona et al. 2021). Notwithstanding, it is frequently featured later on as well, concerning a variety of topics and related notions, including connectivism (Sinka 2011), cyber-utopia (Iványi 2015), big data (Galántai 2016; Szűts and Yoo 2016), and psychopolitics (Iványi 2021).
3.2.3 Inequalities and the Digital Divide
As mentioned above (see 3.2.1. New media and the Internet), one of the earliest concerns voiced regarding the Internet was the novel types of communication inequalities it might bring forward. The problem proved to be even more ambiguous as many advocates of the upcoming information era specifically proclaimed the Internet culture to – at least, in principle – hinder existing disparities by expanding the public sphere and, thus, democratize social relations in general (e.g., Bartha 2002; S. Molnár 2001). It seemed, as Angelusz and Tardos (1999) noted, that although the new communication technologies, in the long run, may give rise to novel interaction communities, in the shorter term – while a significant part of the population has limited access to these technologies – they are more likely to contribute to the deepening of social inequalities.
In general, articles regarding notions of digital inequalities seem to culminate in special issues being published throughout the years. Moreover, whilst earlier publications usually focus on disparities regarding access to these new technologies (e.g., Angelusz and Tardos 1999; Lengyel et al. 2003), a turn towards differences in consumption patterns is later indicated (e.g., Kollányi & Székely). In 2006, Információs Társadalom published a special issue (2006/2) comprising of presentations given at the conference Information Society and Social Integration a year before. Kollányi and Székely (2006), for instance, analyses three disadvantaged group based on World Internet Project data – including the elderly people, the Roma people, and people living in rural areas – and argue for special development programs regarding ICTs. Similarly, Molnár (2006) argues that smaller settlements across the country – lacking community spaces that most often also provide access to ICT tools (e.g., libraries, community centers) – are especially prone to fall behind on adapting new technologies resulting in a widening the digital divide between bigger cities and these more isolated areas. In 2008, a thematic volume concerning e-Inclusion (Információs Társadalom 2008/2) voices similar issues weighting on rural areas (Kollányi and Kurucz 2008) and the Roma community (Kollányi and Kurucz 2008; Kurucz 2008), as well as highlighting some of the motivational barriers hindering adaptation (Galácz and Ságvári 2008). With this latter notion we already see a turn towards consumption patterns. In fact, as access to the Internet became increasingly widespread (and available), research gradually seem to move from disparities of access towards differences of new media consumption, with a special attention towards generational disparities (Katona et al. 2021). This transformation of the field is already indicated by a thematic issue in the following year concerning the notion of an ageing society in the context of the information era (Gyarmati 2009; Rab 2009), as well as one in 2017 concerning digital poverty and novel manifestations of digital inequalities (Csepeli 2017; Csótó 2017; Sólyom 2017). Most recently, we see studies of digital inequalities addressing issues regarding the COVID-19 pandemic. Vajda (2020), for instance, examines ICT access patterns of the elderly population in order to assess potential channels of crisis communication, whilst Rákóczy (2021) analyses online public service messages addressed to the elderly, as well as the reach and the impact of these information regarding the pandemic.
3.2.4 Education, Digital Literacy
Strongly connected to research regarding the digital divide and the differences of new media consumption habits, education and digital literacy also emerge as significant focal points of research. Studies, here, both include works on the impact ICT technologies (and online tools) have on traditional education (e.g., Károlyi and Bakó 2012), as well as articles examining digital literacy education (e.g., Pintér 2008; Siakas 2008). Once again, we find studies to be culminating in thematic issues and around specific external projects considering the topic. In 2008, numerous studies have been published following project NETIS (Network for Teaching Information Society), which aimed to develop an information society-based e-learning curriculum for undergraduate students (Bessenyei and Tóth 2008; Pintér 2008; Sadler and Kalvet 2008; Siakas 2008; Tóth and Bessenyei 2008). In 2012, Információs Társadalom published a thematic issue specifically focusing on the changing media environment of education. The volume comprised of a variety of related topics, including a theoretical work considering the 21st century metamorphosis of interpersonal discourse and its effects on education (Károlyi and Bakó 2012), as well as a developmental cases study concerning e-learning in a university environment (Lengyel and Herdon 2012) and studies examining novel educational tools of tablets (Duma and Monda 2012) and online projects (Hülber 2012). The general diversity of education-related studies did not lessen throughout the years. In recent years, we find articles on the possibilities of curricula based on Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC; Majó-Petri et al. 2020), publications considering digital inequalities in education (Barnucz and Fónai 2020), as well as studies scrutinizing distant learning in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic (Rajnai and Németh 2021; Tóth and Mitev 2020). Moreover, a general turn from theoretical works towards empirical (or even more, practical) studies is partially documented within the corpus of the relevant research (Katona et al. 2021).
3.2.5 E-Governance
A topically more specific line of research concerns e-governance (see Figure 1), that is, the use of ICTs in public administration. The first thematic issue – including the first related articles – was published in 2004 admitting that although the notion of e-governance is increasingly emerging as a popular topic of political and organizational discourse, the scientific (and mostly, social scientific) aspects of the issue have so far failed to receive due attention (Molnár and Karvalics 2004a, 2004b). Amending this shortcoming, Kleinheincz (2004) examines the Hungarian public administration communication development in the past 35 years, whilst Nyáry (2004) provides theoretical considerations of ICT development in a parliamentary context. Similarly, the 2007/1 volume of Információs Társadalom opts for an e-governmental focus. Notwithstanding, whilst in 2004 authors needed to argue for the mere legitimacy of e-governmental tools, three years later – and in line with the inevitability of the subject by the time – empirical results started to dominate the publication field (Molnár 2007). Karvalics et al. (2007) formulate a well-founded critique regarding the Hungarian public administration reforms of the time being generally ignorant towards e-governmental tools and targets. At the same time, in diverse studies, both European (Juhász 2007) and American (Karvalics 2007) best practices are provided, as well as an annual report of the state of development regarding the Hungarian e-government (Borovitz et al. 2007). The first user side analysis is conducted by Csüllög and Varga (2007). Their results suggests that the majority of the population have little or no knowledge regarding e-governmental services, and that this knowledge gap strongly correlates with the digital divide between lower and higher social status groups, further emphasizing concerns regarding digital inequalities and the civil society.
In general, issues regarding the Hungarian adaptation of e-governmental tools are reoccurring throughout the years. Most recently, Herendy and Budai (2021) conducted an analysis to assess the quality of local governmental websites and found that most of these outlets fall short of the level citizens are used to encounter on an everyday basis on other service providers’ websites. Moreover, most of these pages still have accessibility problems regarding the disabled, as well as missing foreign language options for most of the time – problems, which could be avoided with consistent and professional user research and testing. Consequently, regarding the Hungarian e-governmental system, there still seems to be room for improvement today.
3.2.6 Social Media
Although being only present from 2010 onwards (Table 2; also, Katona et al. 2021), social media appears to be the most frequently addressed topic in Hungarian online media research (Figure 1). Among the first articles to discuss the topic is Burján’s (2010a, 2010b) two-fold analysis of Internet-based political campaigns, in which he provides a comprehensive overview of the new media tools utilized in the 2010 Hungarian parliamentary elections campaigns as well as future prospects of these technologies. His analysis covers a wide variety of online services, including Youtube, Twitter, Ustream, and Facebook. It is important to note, that although the number of Facebook users were rapidly increasing within these early years, Facebook was only the third largest social networking site in Hungary for a long time, following locally developed services of Iwiw and MyVip (Burján 2010b). Shortly after Burján’s initial studies, a wide range of studies concerning social media appeared. The diversity of these works, by itself, is an indication of the significant effects of social media on the socio-cultural, economic, and political environment of the Hungarian society. Among the earlier publications, we find articles regarding the changing habits of consumers within this new media environment (Bokody and Urbán 2011; Csüllög 2012; Duma and Monda 2011), the shifting media distribution of the market (Ferencz and Rétfalvi 2011), issues of data security (Gayer and Balog 2011), as well as a strong line of critical-theoretical research concerning post-modern political and economic aspects of this novel environment (e.g., fragmented publicity, polarization, world-systems; Iványi 2014a, 2014b, 2014c; Bokor 2014). Notwithstanding, all these focal points of mainstream research interest keep reappearing throughout the years with both optimistic (Bene and Somodi 2018) and pessimistic (Barta 2018) overtones. Moreover, novel topics are also constantly being addressed, including – most recently – phenomena of social silence (that is, a voluntary exile from social media sites; Mihalik 2020; Ujhely and Domonkos 2016), digital identities and online self-representations (Scheicher 2020), and the linguistic aspects of social media use (Baksa 2018; Bódi 2020; Parapics 2020; Veszelszki 2017).
3.2.7 Video Games
Similar to social media-related research, studies concerning video games and the online gamer community appear relatively late in time (2010; Figure 1). Furthermore, although other online communities are also examined (Iványi 2014b, 2014d), articles regarding online gaming have a distinct tradition within the Hungarian research field. Amongst the very first articles, Csepeli and Prazsák (2010) examined a representative sample of 1000 Internet users concerning their online and offline activities. The focus of their analyses was on the relationship between online video games and their traditional counterparts played in the physical world. Their results indicate that – at the time – playing online games was not at the expense of traditional gaming. However, they also note somewhat pessimistically, that video games carry obvious dangers, especially towards young people lacking a strong embeddedness into the social body and, therefore, prone to isolation. Urbán (2011) examines history making mechanisms within virtual communities based on the analysis of the massive multiplayer online game (MMO) eRepublik and finds strong indications of an imaginary historical memory existing within the gamer community. The same year, Tóth (2011) provides theoretical considerations regarding notions of simulation and narratives within computer games. Shortly after, Szigeti and Horváth (2012) considers online environmental games and how these can prompt sustainability and increase environmental awareness. The corpus of related articles seems to peak in 2008, when a special issue of Információs Társadalom (2018/1) concerning video games and e-sports is published. Within this thematic volume we both find current analyses and overviews of the Hungarian gaming community (Pintér 2018), general introduction to novel markets of e-sports (Szabella 2018), as well as a review of the current theoretical and practical approaches concerning the problematic use of video games (Bányai et al. 2018).
In general, theoretical studies seem to dominate the tradition (Karvalics 2018; Kiss 2018; Pólya 2019, 2020). Notwithstanding, we also find – although to a smaller extent – empirical works (Csepeli and Prazsák 2010; Pintér 2018), as well as both optimistic (Szigeti and Horváth 2012; Urbán 2011) and pessimistic (Bányai et al. 2018; Szerdi 2018) voices concerning online gaming.
3.2.8 Big Data, Algorithms, and Artificial Intelligence
Novel trends of research include articles on the interconnected notions of big data, algorithms, and artificial intelligence within the emerging new media environment. Regarding big data, the first studies appeared around 10 years ago, after Információs Társadalom published a Hungarian translation of “Critical questions for big data” by Boyd and Crawford (2012). Interestingly enough, and echoing the tone of this seminal study, most of the following publications hit a critical-pessimistic tone towards big data and the related phenomena: Pintér (2013) provides a comprehensive overview of the actors and aspects involved in the Snowden case, whilst Fehér (2014) emphasizes issues of digital identity (e.g., risk, vulnerability, reputation) within the context of big data. In 2016, two articles consider the paradigm shift big data brought about within the information society in general (Szűts and Yoo 2016), and within science with regards to causality (Galántai 2016). The bulk of the relevant research here is, once again, theoretical in nature. Notwithstanding, most recently, empirical studies also started to appear, typically considering a practical approach towards tools of big data analysis (e.g., media content analysis: Szűts 2017; IoT-related medical applications: Tóth and Szilágyi 2021). Considering algorithms and artificial intelligence, the majority of relevant studies date even later. Furthermore, the increasing frequency of these concepts reflect the high level and growing popularity of the topic (Katona et al. 2021). Following the 2015 discussion starter thematic issue of Információs Társadalom on artificial intelligence (Karvalics 2015; Síklaki 2015), we find works on filter bubbles and the consequent online radicalization processes (Gálik 2020), diversity-sensitive algorithms and social platforms (Reinhardt 2021), as well as the possibilities and limitations of AI-based chatbots (Kenesi and Bognár 2019; Szűts and Yoo 2018). Notwithstanding, apart from a few recent examples (e.g., Kenese and Bognár 2019), the bulk of research considering notions of algorithms and artificial intelligence within the context of new media is almost exclusively comprised of theoretical papers that most often borrow a critical perspective (Gálik 2020; Reinhardt 2021). This trend of theoretical dominance – especially within the early years of emerging research interests (see 3.2.1. New media and the Internet, and 3.2.4. Education, digital literacy) – seem to be consistent across various traditions in Hungarian online media research.
4 Reflections
In general, the results suggest Hungarian online media research to be a diverse field, accommodating a variety of approaches – theoretical (Galántai 2016; Iványi 2015) and empirical (Pintér 2018; Szántai 1998; Tardos 2003) – as well as a complexity of voices – be that optimistic (P. Molnár 2001, 2002) or pessimistic (Barta 2018; Krajcsi 2000) towards the new media environment. Notwithstanding, although after strong initial theoretical dominances across various subtopics, empirical studies are now increasingly gaining ground, these two methodological traditions, for the most part, seem to evade each other. Therefore, a more active dialogue between studies of theoretical, critical, and empirical nature is prompted.
Furthermore, the embeddedness of Hungarian online communication (and, in general, communication) research into the international academic community is a pivotal question when it comes to the international impact of local research and the transferability of the Hungarian research model within the globalized field of academia. For a long time in history, communication and media studies within Central and Eastern Europe could not develop organically, as the repressive political regime of the Soviet Union rendered such developments of the field virtually impossible for decades. Serious deficiencies in free speech, the absence of press freedom, the prohibition of international traveling and the lack of appropriate language learning – apart from Russian, of course – led to the region’s complete isolation from the international scientific community, especially in the case of the ideologically more sensitive social sciences (Kornai 1992). Consequently, an “academic gap” arose between the Western and Eastern conception of communication and media scholarship (Lauk 2015). After the end of the bipolar world, and despite the efforts of the region in the past 25 years (including academic institutions, university faculties, national and international organizations and professional journals), there is still a wide abyss between the international contribution of Central and Eastern European communication scholars and those of the West. While there is an ongoing reform with the aim of internationalizing Hungarian scholarship, publishing in international journals, for instance, were mandatory neither for professors, nor for doctoral students up until recent years. Consequently, publications in international journals are, in general, relatively scarce among Hungarian communication and media scholars, and those who publish on an international scale are typically of the younger generations. According to SciVal data, there is only one Hungarian communication scholar (apart from communication engineers) that published more than 10 papers in the last five years in indexed international journals, and another who published more than five. Both of them started to publish very recently, about five years ago. Moreover, there is a trend that tries to sidestep the novel internationalization policy requirements by establishing Hungarian journals and make them indexed in Scopus, that is, the international database of indexed journals used by the most popular global university rankings such as THE and QS. For instance, Információs Társadalom, one of the examined outlets of the above analysis, while published in Hungarian – and therefore most likely to be read by Hungarian scholars only – is considered to be international pro forma, as it is indexed in Scopus. The problem with such tendencies is that, first, publishing in Hungarian journals, even if they are indexed in Scopus, will not raise the international visibility of Hungarian scholarship. Second, as publishing in these kinds of journals fulfills the internationalization requirements in many institutions, it might actually withhold aspirations for publishing in “real” international journals. International (that is, internationally visible and potentially impactful) publications are especially important to aid the above-mentioned historical shortcomings of Hungarian scholarship and, so, for Hungarian scholars to meaningfully participate in the globalized field of academic knowledge production. It is important to note, that these aspirations are not only beneficial for Hungarian scholarship, but – considering the Mertonian norm of universality (Merton 1968, 1973) and the consequent need for an epistemological diversity in social sciences with regards to geographical regions (Demeter 2018; Demeter and Tóth 2020) – for the international research community as well. In fact, the bulk of Hungarian online communication research is virtually invisible to the international (as well as the regional) research community simply because of the fact of being published in Hungarian. At the same time, post-socialist critique of information society could naturally widen the mainstream Western theoretical framework. Furthermore, a more vivid dialogue between regional countries sharing aspects of their historical pasts (and the consequent cultural present) could also bring about major development in the field. Increasing international visibility is therefore heavily prompted. Notwithstanding, these processes are hindered by the fact that the interest of central (that is, Western) academia does not seem to extend to autonomous Eastern research, but only to the East as research topic for Western scholars (Harro-Loit 2015). The challenge for Hungarian online communication research is therefore twofold, marked by both local academic cultural shortcomings rooted in the socialist and post-socialist legacy, as well as strong systematic disparities of the current globalized academia.
Finally, although the bulk of early theoretical studies – mending the language barriers rooted in the Soviet past – effectively functioned as interpretations of influential Western authors in Hungarian (or oftentimes even direct translations), due to recent internationalization processes and the consequent necessity of language learning (especially English), works following this line of tradition are inevitably losing functionality. Notwithstanding, these fundamental transformations of the field, if properly addressed, also allow for stronger empirical, as well as more locally aware (that is, culturally more sensitive) theoretical and critical traditions to arise. Adapting to the context of academic globalization, therefore, should not be seen as a mere obligation forced onto scholars by various internationalization policies, but also as an opportunity for Hungarian communication scholarship to grow.
4.1 Limitations and Future Research
Although the results are indicative, it is important to note that our analysis is limited by both the scale of the study and the depth of the qualitative analysis. On one hand, lacking a unified database which allows for automatic article selection protocols, we limited our analysis to three major communication journals dealing with online media phenomena. Future research, however, could extend the scope of analysis to related outlets in the fields of sociology (e.g., Szociológiai Szemle, socio.hu), where social and everyday communication-related consequences of online media usage are mostly published, and political science (e.g., Politikatudományi Szemle), where online political communication research is largely concentrated. On the other hand, future research should also consider looking at the history of Hungarian online communication research in a historically and culturally sensitive manner. A plethora of external factors stemming from the socialist and post-socialist legacy can be considered to have a major impact on the Hungarian academic field today such as ideological separation, economic underdevelopment, underfunding of research, language barriers (Karady and Nagy 2018; Kwiek 2012). Looking at academic cultural path-dependencies in a highly contextualized approach, therefore, can provide valuable insight on Hungarian online media research on the background of international and globalized Western academia.
About the author
Gergő Háló is at the Corvinus University of Budapest and an assistant professor at the National University of Public Service Budapest. Applying socio-critical frameworks, the author specializes in geopolitical and gender inequalities in sciences, academic performance assessment, international frameworks of research assessment, indexing databases, as well as research and higher education policies, applying various methodologies (statistical analysis, network analysis, econometrics).
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© 2022 Gergő Háló, published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Editorial Essay
- Global Content Creation and Consumption Transformation by Short Video Apps
- Themed Topic Review Essay
- A Historical Review and Theoretical Mapping on Short Video Studies 2005–2021
- Original Articles
- TikTok Intifada: Analyzing Social Media Activism Among Youth
- YouTube and TikTok as Platforms for Learning about Others: The Case of Non-Chinese Travel Videos in Shanghai Disneyland
- TikTok/Douyin Use and Its Influencer Video Use: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Between Chinese and US Users
- If I’m not Streaming, I’m not Earning: Audience Relations and Platform Time on Douyin
- Online Image and Self-Presentation: A Study on Chinese Rural Female Vloggers
- Review Article
- A review of online communication research in Hungary
- Gem from the Global South
- The Effect of Children’s Exposure to the YouTube Platform Moshaya Family Channel on Socialization of the Saudi Child Regarding Life Satisfaction
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Editorial Essay
- Global Content Creation and Consumption Transformation by Short Video Apps
- Themed Topic Review Essay
- A Historical Review and Theoretical Mapping on Short Video Studies 2005–2021
- Original Articles
- TikTok Intifada: Analyzing Social Media Activism Among Youth
- YouTube and TikTok as Platforms for Learning about Others: The Case of Non-Chinese Travel Videos in Shanghai Disneyland
- TikTok/Douyin Use and Its Influencer Video Use: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Between Chinese and US Users
- If I’m not Streaming, I’m not Earning: Audience Relations and Platform Time on Douyin
- Online Image and Self-Presentation: A Study on Chinese Rural Female Vloggers
- Review Article
- A review of online communication research in Hungary
- Gem from the Global South
- The Effect of Children’s Exposure to the YouTube Platform Moshaya Family Channel on Socialization of the Saudi Child Regarding Life Satisfaction
