Zum Hauptinhalt springen
Artikel Open Access

Durian husk-mediated green synthesis of Cr2O3 nanoparticles exhibiting uncompetitive inhibition of pancreatic lipase for anti-obesity applications

  • ORCID logo , , , ORCID logo , , , EMAIL logo und ORCID logo EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 8. April 2026
Artikel downloaden (PDF)
Veröffentlichen auch Sie bei De Gruyter Brill
Manuskript einreichen Informationen für Autor*innen
Nanotechnology Reviews
Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 15 Heft 1

Abstract

The global obesity epidemic underscores the urgent need for safer and more sustainable alternatives to conventional lipase inhibitors, which are limited by adverse side effects. In this study, chromium oxide nanoparticles (Cr2O3 NPs) were synthesized via a microwave-assisted green route using durian (Durio zibethinus or D. zibethinus) husk extract (DHE), valorising agricultural waste as a natural reducing and stabilising agent. The nanoparticles were comprehensively characterised, confirming a rhombohedral eskolaite crystalline structure, quasi-spherical morphology with an average size of 65.93 ± 13.48 nm, and a bandgap energy of 3.32 eV. Functionally, the Cr2O3 NPs exhibited strong antioxidant activity (91.94 % DPPH, 57.0 % ABTS) and significant pancreatic lipase inhibition (73.82 %). Kinetic analysis revealed an uncompetitive inhibition mechanism, representing the first report of durian husk-derived Cr2O3 NPs with this enzymatic action. These findings highlight the dual antioxidant and enzymatic inhibitory potential of green-synthesised Cr2O3 NPs and their promise as sustainable nanotherapeutics for obesity management within the framework of green nanomedicine and circular bioeconomy.

Keywords: green nanotechnology; chromium oxide nanoparticles (Cr2O3 NPs); durian husk extract (DHE); pancreatic lipase inhibition; uncompetitive enzyme inhibition; anti-obesity nanomedicine

1 Introduction

Obesity is a chronic, multifactorial metabolic disorder characterised by excessive adipose accumulation resulting from an imbalance between caloric intake and expenditure. It substantially increases the risk of comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension, making it one of the most pressing global health challenges [1]. As of 2022, an estimated 43 % of adults worldwide were overweight and 16 % were obese [1]. In Malaysia, the situation is particularly alarming, with 30.4 % of adults and 19.7 % of adolescents classified as overweight or obese, leading to a combined prevalence exceeding 50 % [2].

A clinically validated strategy for obesity management is the inhibition of pancreatic lipase (EC 3.1.1.3), the primary enzyme responsible for hydrolysing dietary triglycerides into absorbable free fatty acids and monoglycerides [3]. Orlistat, the only Food and Drugs Authority (FDA)–approved lipase inhibitor, has demonstrated therapeutic efficacy; however, its long-term use is constrained by adverse gastrointestinal effects such as oily stools, flatulence, and diarrhoea, which significantly reduce patient compliance [4]. These limitations underscore the urgent need for safer, more tolerable, and sustainable alternatives to conventional small-molecule inhibitors.

Nanotechnology offers a promising route for the development of next-generation enzyme inhibitors with enhanced specificity and reduced toxicity. Metal oxide NPs, in particular Cr2O3 have attracted attention for their catalytic, antioxidant, and enzyme-modulating properties [5], [6], [7]. However, conventional synthesis methods often involve toxic chemicals and high-energy processes, raising concerns about environmental sustainability and biomedical safety concerns that restrict their wider use in clinical applications.

Green synthesis using plant extracts has emerged as an eco-friendly and cost-effective alternative, harnessing phytochemicals such as phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, and lignin as natural reducing and stabilising agents [8], [9], [10]. The durian (Durio zibethinus) husk, an abundant agricultural waste rich in phytochemicals, has previously been used to synthesise CuO and Cr2O3 NPs with antimicrobial and photocatalytic properties [8], [9], [10], [11]. Despite these advances, the biomedical applications of durian husk-derived nanoparticles remain underexplored. No studies have examined Cr2O3 NPs from this source for pancreatic lipase inhibition.

Furthermore, while most nanoparticle-based lipase inhibitors act via competitive inhibition, little is known about green-synthesised nanoparticles that function through uncompetitive inhibition – a mechanism where the inhibitor binds exclusively to the enzyme–substrate complex, often resulting in more sustained inhibition at high substrate concentrations.

This study therefore presents the first report of a microwave-assisted green synthesis of Cr2O3 NPs using durian husk extract (DHE), and the first demonstration of their uncompetitive inhibition of pancreatic lipase. The dual antioxidant and enzymatic inhibitory properties of these nanoparticles not only offer a sustainable pathway for obesity management but also exemplify the valorisation of agricultural waste into high-value biomedical products.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

All chemicals used in this study were of analytical grade and used without further purification. The chromium (III) nitrate nonahydrate (Cr(NO3)3·9H2O, ≥99 % purity) was purchased from R&M Chemicals, United Kingdom. Ethanol (C2H5OH, 99.9 %, ACS reagent grade) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH, 98 % purity) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (USA). All solutions were prepared using deionised (DI) water 18.2 MΩ cm resistivity (Millipore System). Fresh durian fruits were sourced from a local fruit market in Ipoh, Malaysia, in July 2025.

2.2 Preparation of DHE

The durian husks were thoroughly washed with DI water to remove dust and impurities, then cut into small pieces (∼2–3 cm) using a sterilized stainless-steel knife. The durian husk pieces were dried in an oven at 80 °C overnight. After drying, the durian husks were ground into fine powder, with a proximate yield of ∼30 % powder from the fresh husk weight. A total of 4 g of durian husk powder was added to 150 mL of DI water and heated at 70 °C for 30 min with continuous stirring. After cooling to room temperature (∼25 °C), the mixture was filtered using vacuum filtration with a Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filtrate (DHE solution) was stored at 4 °C until further use. The experimental procedure is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Schematic representation of the preparation of Durio zibethinus DHE. The process involved washing, drying, grinding into powder, heating in water at 70 °C, and vacuum filtration to obtain the phytochemical-rich extract used for nanoparticle synthesis.
Figure 1:

Schematic representation of the preparation of Durio zibethinus DHE. The process involved washing, drying, grinding into powder, heating in water at 70 °C, and vacuum filtration to obtain the phytochemical-rich extract used for nanoparticle synthesis.

2.3 Microwave-assisted green synthesis of Cr2O3 NPs

A 3.0 g quantity of Cr(NO3)3·9H2O was dissolved in 50 mL of DHE solution, forming a dark blue mixture. The solution was stirred at ∼25 °C for 5–10 min using a hotplate stirrer and then subjected to microwave irradiation (CEM Corporation, USA) at 60 °C for 30 min. The mixture gradually turned dark green, indicating nanoparticle formation. The solution was evaporated using a rotary evaporator (Büchi Rotavapor R-300, Switzerland) until a dark green paste was obtained. The paste was transferred to a ceramic crucible and calcined at 450 °C for 2 h in a muffle furnace (Nabertherm, Germany). The final product, a fine dark green Cr2O3 NPs powder, was ground using a mortar and pestle and stored in an airtight container for characterisation. The preparation Cr2O3 NPs using DHE and Cr(NO3)3.9H2O was shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Microwave-assisted synthesis of Cr2O3 NPs using DHE as a natural reducing and stabilising agent. The illustration depicts precursor preparation, microwave irradiation, rotary evaporation, and calcination to yield Cr2O3 NPs.
Figure 2:

Microwave-assisted synthesis of Cr2O3 NPs using DHE as a natural reducing and stabilising agent. The illustration depicts precursor preparation, microwave irradiation, rotary evaporation, and calcination to yield Cr2O3 NPs.

2.4 Characterization of synthesized Cr2O3 NPs

UV–Visible (UV–vis) describes the optical properties and bandgap energy of the synthesized Cr2O3 NPs and it was analysed using a UV–vis spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific GENESYS 10S) in the range of 200–800 nm. The bandgap was estimated using Tauc’s plot. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR): Functional groups and chemical bonding in the nanoparticles were analysed using a PerkinElmer RX1 FTIR spectrophotometer, scanning between 400 cm−1 and 4,000 cm−1. The obtained spectra were compared to reference spectra for structural confirmation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM): Morphological characteristics, particle size, and surface topology were examined using SEM (JOEL JSM-6710F) and TEM (JEOL JEM-2100). TEM provided insights into the crystallinity and dispersion of nanoparticles. X-ray diffraction (XRD): The crystalline phase of Cr2O3 and its microcomposite was determined using a Shimadzu XRD-6,000 diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5406 Å) over a 2θ range of 20°–80°. Scherrer’s equation was used to estimate crystallite size. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX): Elemental composition was determined and analysed using a JEOL JSM-6701F SEM with an Oxford Instruments X-Max detector coupled with SEM to confirm the presence of chromium (Cr), oxygen (O), and carbon (C) elements.

2.5 Antioxidant capacity assays

2.5.1 Total phenolic content (TPC)

The total phenolic content (TPC) of DHE and Cr2O3 NPs was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu method. Stock solutions of gallic acid standard (0.00–0.20 mg/mL) were prepared in DI water. Each sample (0.10 mL) was mixed with 0.75 mL of 10-fold diluted Folin–Ciocalteu reagent and incubated in the dark for 5 min 0.75 mL of 6 % sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) solution was added, followed by incubation at room temperature for 90 min. The absorbance was measured at 725 nm using a Genesys 10S UV–vis spectrophotometer. Results were expressed as mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g extract [11].

2.5.2 Total flavonoid content (TFC)

The TFC was determined using the aluminium chloride colorimetric method. Quercetin hydrate standard (0.00–0.20 mg/mL) was used as a reference. Each 0.2 mL of sample was mixed with 0.15 mL of 5 % sodium nitrite (NaNO2) solution and incubated in dark conditions for 6 min. Then, 0.15 mL of 10 % aluminium chloride (AlCl3) solution was added, followed by incubation for 6 min. Finally, 0.8 mL of 10 % NaOH was added, and absorbance was measured at 510 nm. Results were expressed as mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/g extract [12].

2.6 Free radical scavenging activity

2.6.1 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay

The DPPH radical scavenging activity was assessed by preparing a fresh 0.1 mM DPPH solution in 95 % ethanol. The absorbance of the working solution was adjusted to 0.98 ± 0.02 at 517 nm. Different concentrations of Cr2O3 NPs (0.05–1.00 mg/mL) were incubated with 1.0 mL of DPPH solution in the dark for 30 min, and absorbance was recorded at 517 nm. Ascorbic acid (0.00–0.12 mg/mL) was used as a standard [13]. The DPPH % was calculated by the formula:

(1) DPPH scavenging activity  % = Abs   of   control   ‐   Abs   of   sample Abs   of   control × 100 %

2.6.2 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assay

The ABTS radical scavenging activity was determined using an ABTS solution (7 mM) mixed with 2.6 mM potassium persulfate and incubated in dark conditions for 12–16 h. The working solution absorbance was adjusted to 0.70 ± 0.02 at 734 nm. Cr2O3 NPs samples (0.05–1.00 mg/mL) were incubated with 1.0 mL ABTS solution for 30 min, and absorbance was measured at 734 nm. Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (0.00–0.12 mg/mL) was used as a standard [14]. The ABTS % was calculated by the formula:

(2) ABTS scavenging activity  % = Abs   of   control   ‐   Abs   of   sample Abs   of   control × 100 %

2.7 Enzymatic inhibition

2.7.1 Pancreatic lipase inhibition

The spectrophotometric method was used to conduct the pancreatic lipase inhibition assay, using orlistat as a reference drug and p-nitrophenyl palmitate (p-NPP) as the substrate. The experimental conditions in the [15] study was slightly modified. A 50 mM tris hydrochloride buffer (Tris-HCl) was prepared at pH 8.0 and incubated in cold condition for 30 min. Then, 1 mg/mL of pancreatic lipase was dissolved in a cold buffer. Next, 0.01 M of p-NPP was prepared by dissolving 0.03 g of p-NPP powder into isopropanol through sonication. The assay was performed as follows: each sample solution, composed of 0.70 mL Tris-HCl buffer at pH 8.0, 0.10 mL of different concentrations of Cr2O3 NPs solution (0.00–1.00 mg/mL), and 0.10 mL of pancreatic lipase enzyme, was sequentially added. The resulting mixture was thoroughly mixed and incubated at 37 °C for 10 min. The p-NPP substrate solution was then added and mixed thoroughly. Subsequently, the mixture was further incubated 37 °C for 7 min. Finally, the absorbance of the solution was measured at 405 nm. The control was prepared in the same way as the sample, by replacing the tested sample with tris-HCl buffer. The blank solution was prepared without enzyme added.

The percentage of pancreatic lipase inhibition (I%) was calculated using the following eq.:

(3) I   % = Abs   of   control   ‐   Abs   of   sample Abs   of   control × 100 %

2.7.2 Pancreatic lipase inhibition kinetic analysis

The kinetic evaluation of pancreatic lipase activity included identifying the mode of inhibition and incorporating orlistat as the positive control [16]. The substrate p-NPP was examined at different concentrations ranging from 0.50 mg/mL to 5.00 mg/mL. The Cr2O3 NPs was assessed for its lipase inhibition capacity over time at concentrations of 1.00 mg/mL. Simultaneously, a negative control sample without an inhibitor was used to compare. Similarly, the control substance orlistat was tested at the concentration of 0.12 mg/mL. The Michaelis-Menten plots were used to determine the inhibition constant (K) and maximum velocity (V max), while the Lineweaver-Burk plots were used to present the mode of enzyme inhibition. All parameters and graphical representation were calculated and generated using Origin 2024 software.

2.8 Statistical analysis

All experiments were performed in triplicate (n = 3), and data were reported as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical significance was determined using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test to evaluate differences between groups. IC 50 values for Cr2O3 NPs and orlistat were calculated using nonlinear regression analysis. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses and graphical representations were conducted using Origin 2024 software.

3 Results

3.1 UV–vis spectroscopy of Cr2O3 NPs

The optical properties of the synthesized Cr2O3 NPs were investigated using UV–vis absorption spectroscopy. Figure 3A displays the absorption spectrum of Cr (III) nitrate salt, exhibiting a broad absorption band between 250 and 400 nm, attributed to ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) transitions of Cr3+ ions in solution. This characteristic peak aligns with previous studies on Cr (III) complexes in aqueous environments.

Figure 3: UV–vis absorption spectra of (A) green-synthesised Cr2O3, NPs (B) hromium nitrate salt, and (C) DHE. The inset shows the Tauc’s plot used to estimate the optical bandgap energy of Cr2O3 NPs (3.32 eV).
Figure 3:

UV–vis absorption spectra of (A) green-synthesised Cr2O3, NPs (B) hromium nitrate salt, and (C) DHE. The inset shows the Tauc’s plot used to estimate the optical bandgap energy of Cr2O3 NPs (3.32 eV).

Upon synthesis, the UV–vis spectrum of Cr2O3 NPs (Figure 3B) shows a distinct redshifted absorption edge around 450–700 nm, confirming the formation of Cr2O3 NPs. This shift in absorption wavelength compared to the precursor indicates a change in electronic structure, typically associated with nanoparticle formation [8], 17]. The Tauc plot (inset in Figure 3B) determines the optical bandgap of Cr2O3 NPs as 3.40 eV, consistent with reported values for nano-sized Cr2O3 [18].

Figure 3C presents the UV–vis spectrum of DHE, showing prominent absorption bands at 270–350 nm, corresponding to polyphenolic compounds and flavonoids present in the extract. These compounds serve as bioreducing and stabilizing agents in the green synthesis process. The absence of significant absorption peaks beyond 400 nm in DHE confirms that the broad absorption in Cr2O3 NPs is due to nanoparticle formation rather than residual organic molecules.

3.2 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis

FTIR spectroscopy was employed to identify functional groups in the DHE and to confirm their involvement in the synthesis and stabilization of Cr2O3 NPs. Figure 4 presents the FTIR spectra of (A) DHE and (B) synthesized Cr2O3 NPs.

Figure 4: FTIR spectra of (A) DHE and (B) green-synthesised Cr2O3 NPs. Characteristic peaks indicate hydroxyl, carbonyl, and aromatic groups in DHE, and Cr–O stretching vibrations confirming nanoparticle formation.
Figure 4:

FTIR spectra of (A) DHE and (B) green-synthesised Cr2O3 NPs. Characteristic peaks indicate hydroxyl, carbonyl, and aromatic groups in DHE, and Cr–O stretching vibrations confirming nanoparticle formation.

3.2.1 DHE FTIR spectrum

The FTIR spectrum of DHE (Figure 4A) exhibits several characteristic absorption bands:

  1. O–H stretching (∼3,323 cm −1 ): A broad peak corresponding to hydroxyl groups, indicative of polyphenols and alcohols.

  2. C=O stretching (∼1,732 cm −1 ): A sharp peak associated with carbonyl groups, suggesting the presence of carboxylic acids, aldehydes, or ketones.

  3. C=C stretching (∼1,610 cm −1 ): A peak corresponding to aromatic ring vibrations, indicating lignin or other aromatic compounds.

  4. C–O stretching (∼1,033 cm −1 ): A peak attributed to C–O bonds in alcohols, ethers, or esters.

These functional groups are commonly found in plant extracts and play a crucial role in the reduction and stabilization of metal ions during nanoparticle synthesis.

3.2.2 Cr2O3 NPs FTIR spectrum

The FTIR spectrum of synthesized Cr2O3 NPs (Figure 4B) shows notable changes compared to the DHE spectrum:

  1. Cr–O stretching vibrations (∼541 cm −1 ): A distinct peak confirming the formation of chromium oxide nanoparticles.

  2. Shifted O–H and C=O bands: The O–H stretching band shifts to ∼3,430 cm−1, and the C=O stretching band shifts to ∼1,702 cm−1, indicating interactions between the nanoparticle surface and DHE functional groups.

  3. N–H bending (∼1,646 cm −1 ): A peak associated with N–H bending vibrations, suggesting the presence of amide groups from proteins or other nitrogen-containing compounds in DHE.

These observations imply that biomolecules from DHE act as capping agents, providing stability to the Cr2O3 NPs [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24].

3.3 XRD analysis

XRD analysis was conducted to determine the crystalline structure and phase purity of the synthesized Cr2O3 NPs. The XRD pattern, as depicted in Figure 5, displays distinct diffraction peaks at 2θ values of approximately 24.40°, 33.66°, 36.28°, 39.40°, 41.56°, 50.33°, 54.92°, 58.32°, 63.69° and 65.24°, corresponding to the (012), (104), (110), (006), (113), (024), (116), (122), (214), and (300), crystallographic planes, respectively. These peaks are in excellent agreement with the standard Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) card No. 01-073-4,490, confirming the formation of a rhombohedral eskolaite crystal structure of Cr2O3.

Figure 5: XRD pattern of Cr2O3 NPs recorded in the 2θ range of 20°–80°. The diffraction peaks correspond to the rhombohedral eskolaite structure (ICDD no. 01-073-4,490), confirming phase purity and high crystallinity.
Figure 5:

XRD pattern of Cr2O3 NPs recorded in the 2θ range of 20°–80°. The diffraction peaks correspond to the rhombohedral eskolaite structure (ICDD no. 01-073-4,490), confirming phase purity and high crystallinity.

The absence of additional peaks indicates the high purity of the synthesized nanoparticles. The average crystallite size (D) was estimated using the Debye–Scherrer equation (eq. (4)):

(4) D = K λ β cos θ

where K is the shape factor (typically 0.9), λ is the X-ray wavelength (0.154 nm for Cu Kα radiation), β is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction peak in radians, and θ is the Bragg angle. [25]. The calculated average crystallite size was found to be approximately 20.61 nm. This nanoscale size is consistent with previous studies on green-synthesized Cr2O3 NPs using plant extracts. The sharp and well-defined diffraction peaks further corroborate the high crystallinity of the nanoparticles. Such structural characteristics are essential for applications in catalysis and biomedical fields, where crystallinity and particle size significantly influence performance.

3.4 Field emission-scanning electron microscope analysis

The SEM images (Figure 6) reveal that the Cr2O3 NPs exhibit a predominantly spherical morphology with a relatively uniform size distribution. The nanoparticles appear to be well-dispersed, with minimal agglomeration observed. The average particle size, as estimated from the SEM images, ranges from 50.1 to 77.3 nm, which is consistent with previous studies on green-synthesized Cr2O3 NPs using plant extracts [26], [27], [28], [29], [30].

Figure 6: SEM image of Cr2O3 NPs at 30,000×magnification. The particles exhibit quasi-spherical morphology with minimal agglomeration, consistent with green-synthesised nanomaterials.
Figure 6:

SEM image of Cr2O3 NPs at 30,000×magnification. The particles exhibit quasi-spherical morphology with minimal agglomeration, consistent with green-synthesised nanomaterials.

The surface topology indicates a smooth texture, suggesting effective capping by biomolecules present in the durian husk extract. This capping likely contributes to the stability and dispersibility of the nanoparticles, preventing aggregation during the synthesis process.

3.5 Transmission electron microscope

The morphological features of the green-synthesized Cr2O3 NPs were examined using TEM, as shown in Figure 7A. The TEM image reveals that the nanoparticles predominantly possess a quasi-spherical to slightly irregular morphology and exhibit a tendency to form agglomerated clusters. This aggregation is likely influenced by hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces between the particles, a common feature observed in biogenically synthesized nanomaterials.

Figure 7: TEM analysis of Cr2O3 NPs: (A) TEM micrograph showing quasi-spherical particles with slight clustering, and (B) particle size distribution histogram (n > 50) revealing an average size of 65.93 ± 13.48 nm.
Figure 7:

TEM analysis of Cr2O3 NPs: (A) TEM micrograph showing quasi-spherical particles with slight clustering, and (B) particle size distribution histogram (n > 50) revealing an average size of 65.93 ± 13.48 nm.

To evaluate the particle size distribution, more than 50 particles were measured, and the resulting histogram is presented in Figure 7B. The data follows a near-Gaussian distribution, with the particle sizes ranging from 40 nm to 95 nm. The calculated mean particle size was 65.93 ± 13.48 nm, indicating moderate uniformity with acceptable polydispersity. These values align with the nanoscale expectations and confirm successful formation of Cr2O3 NPs using the DHE as a green stabilizing and reducing agent.

3.6 EDX analysis

EDX was employed to analyse the elemental composition of the synthesized Cr2O3 NPs. The EDX spectrum, presented in Figure 8, confirms the presence of chromium (Cr) and oxygen (O) as the primary constituents. The prominent peaks corresponding to Cr and O validate the successful synthesis of Cr2O3 NPs.

Figure 8: EDX profile of Cr2O3 NPs confirming elemental composition. Peaks correspond to chromium (Cr, 74.77 %) and oxygen (O, 25.23 %), with no detectable impurities.
Figure 8:

EDX profile of Cr2O3 NPs confirming elemental composition. Peaks correspond to chromium (Cr, 74.77 %) and oxygen (O, 25.23 %), with no detectable impurities.

Quantitative analysis reveals that the nanoparticles consist of approximately 74.77 % chromium and 25.23 % oxygen, aligning closely with the stoichiometric ratio of Cr2O3. The absence of significant peaks for other elements indicates the high purity of the synthesized nanoparticles [31], [32], [33].

These findings corroborate the results from XRD and TEM analyses, which confirmed the crystalline nature and appropriate morphology of the Cr2O3 NPs. The high purity and correct stoichiometry are essential for potential applications in catalysis, sensing, and biomedical fields.

3.7 The total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid contents (TFC)

The TPC and TFC of the synthesized Cr2O3 NPs and DHE were quantified to assess their potential antioxidant properties. The results, presented in Table 1, indicate a significant reduction in both TPC and TFC upon nanoparticle synthesis.

Table 1:

Total phenolic content (TPC, expressed as gallic acid equivalents, GAE) and total flavonoid content (TFC, expressed as quercetin equivalents, QE) of DHE and green-synthesised Cr2O3 NPs. Data are mean ± SD (n = 3).

Sample TPC (mg of GAE/g extract ± SD) TFC (mg of QE/g extract ± SD)
Cr2O3 NPs 7.41 ± 0.12* 25.79 ± 0.56*
DHE 65.15 ± 1.82** 89.51 ± 2.54**

  1. Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical significance is indicated as follows: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.005.

The DHE exhibited a TPC of 65.15 ± 1.82 mg GAE/g extract and a TFC of 89.51 ± 2.54 mg QE/g extract, reflecting its rich phenolic and flavonoid composition. Conversely, the Cr2O3 NPs showed a marked decrease in both TPC and TFC, with values of 7.41 ± 0.12 mg GAE/g extract and 25.79 ± 0.56 mg QE/g extract, respectively. This reduction suggests that the nanoparticle synthesis process may lead to the degradation or transformation of phenolic and flavonoid compounds present in the durian husk extract [34], 35].

3.8 Free radical scavenging activities

The antioxidant activities of the samples were evaluated using DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays, with the results summarized in Table 2.

Table 2:

Half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values for antioxidant assays (DPPH and ABTS) of DHE and Cr2O3 NPs, compared with standard antioxidants (ascorbic acid and BHT). Data are mean ± SE (n = 3).

Sample IC 50 DPPH (mg/mL ± SE) IC 50 ABTS (mg/mL ± SE)
Cr2O3 NPs 0.663 ± 0.025 1.47 ± 0.014
DHE 0.798 ± 0.006 0.367 ± 0.007
Ascorbic acid 0.067 ± 0.001 –
BHT – 0.066 ± 0.002

  1. Values are presented as mean ± standard error (SE).

In the DPPH assay, Cr2O3 NPs exhibited an IC 50 of 0.663 ± 0.025 mg/mL, while DHE showed an IC 50 of 0.798 ± 0.006 mg/mL. Ascorbic acid, a known antioxidant, demonstrated a significantly lower IC 50 of 0.067 ± 0.001 mg/mL, indicating higher radical scavenging activity. In the ABTS assay, Cr2O3 NPs had an IC 50 of 1.47 ± 0.014 mg/mL, whereas DHE exhibited a much lower IC 50 of 0.367 ± 0.007 mg/mL. Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), a synthetic antioxidant, showed an IC 50 of 0.066 ± 0.002 mg/mL (Figures 9 and 10).

At a concentration of 1.00 mg/mL, Cr2O3 NPs achieved a DPPH scavenging activity of 91.94 % (p < 0.005), while DHE reached 95.44 % (p < 0.05). Ascorbic acid, at 0.12 mg/mL, exhibited an 82.55 % scavenging activity (p < 0.0005). For the ABTS assay, Cr2O3 NPs at 1 mg/mL showed a 57.0 % scavenging activity (p < 0.05), DHE at 0.5 mg/mL demonstrated a 90.87 % activity (p < 0.05), and BHT at 0.12 mg/mL exhibited an 80.34 % activity (p < 0.005).

These findings indicate that both Cr2O3 NPs and DHE possess notable antioxidant activities, with DHE exhibiting higher efficacy in the ABTS assay. The reduced TPC and TFC in Cr2O3 NPs suggest that other mechanisms, possibly related to the nanoparticle properties, contribute to their antioxidant activity [36], [37], [38].

3.9 Pancreatic lipase inhibition and kinetic study

The pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity of the synthesized Cr2O3 NPs was evaluated and compared to the standard inhibitor, Orlistat. The results, including inhibition percentages, IC50 values, and kinetic analysis, are detailed below (Figures 11 and 12).

Figure 9: DPPH radical scavenging activity of (A) Cr2O3 NPs (1.00 mg/mL, 91.94 %), (B) DHE (1.00 mg/mL, 95.44 %), and (C) ascorbic acid (0.12 mg/mL, 82.55 %). All values are statistically significant (p < 0.05).
Figure 9:

DPPH radical scavenging activity of (A) Cr2O3 NPs (1.00 mg/mL, 91.94 %), (B) DHE (1.00 mg/mL, 95.44 %), and (C) ascorbic acid (0.12 mg/mL, 82.55 %). All values are statistically significant (p < 0.05).

Figure 10: ABTS radical scavenging activity of (A) Cr2O3 NPs (1.00 mg/mL, 57.0 %), (B) DHE (0.50 mg/mL, 90.87 %), and (C) BHT (0.12 mg/mL, 80.34 %). All values are statistically significant (p < 0.05).
Figure 10:

ABTS radical scavenging activity of (A) Cr2O3 NPs (1.00 mg/mL, 57.0 %), (B) DHE (0.50 mg/mL, 90.87 %), and (C) BHT (0.12 mg/mL, 80.34 %). All values are statistically significant (p < 0.05).

The inhibition percentage for Cr2O3 NPs and Orlistat were determined and illustrated in Figure 11. At a concentration of 1 mg/mL, the Cr2O3 NPs exhibited a 73.82 % inhibition of pancreatic lipase activity (p < 0.05). At 0.3 mg/mL, Orlistat demonstrated a 97.18 % inhibition (p < 0.005).

Figure 11: Pancreatic lipase inhibition activity of (A) Cr2O3 NPs (1.00 mg/mL, 73.82 %) and (B) orlistat (0.30 mg/mL, 97.18 %). Data are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3).
Figure 11:

Pancreatic lipase inhibition activity of (A) Cr2O3 NPs (1.00 mg/mL, 73.82 %) and (B) orlistat (0.30 mg/mL, 97.18 %). Data are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3).

The IC 50 values for Cr2O3 NPs and Orlistat were determined, as summarized in Table 3. The Cr2O3 NPs exhibited an IC 50 of 0.91 ± 0.01 mg/mL, indicating a moderate inhibitory effect. In contrast, Orlistat, a known potent lipase inhibitor, showed a significantly lower IC 50 of 0.175 ± 0.002 mg/mL, reflecting its higher inhibitory potency.

Table 3:

Pancreatic lipase inhibition IC50 values of Cr2O3 NPs compared with Orlistat (reference drug). Data are mean ± SE (n = 3), with statistical significance indicated.

Pancreatic lipase inhibition IC 50 (mg/mL ± SE)) p-value
Cr2O3 NPs 0.91 ± 0.01 <0.05
Orlistat 0.175 ± 0.002 <0.005

  1. Values are presented as mean ± standard error (SE).

The inhibitory effect of the synthesized Cr2O3 NPs on pancreatic lipase was evaluated using the Lineweaver–Burk plot to determine the mode of inhibition. The results are illustrated in Figure 12, comparing the enzyme kinetics of the control (without inhibitor) and the Cr2O3 NPs-treated sample.

Figure 12: Lineweaver–Burk plot illustrating the kinetic mode of inhibition of pancreatic lipase in the presence and absence of Cr2O3 NPs. Parallel lines confirm uncompetitive inhibition.
Figure 12:

Lineweaver–Burk plot illustrating the kinetic mode of inhibition of pancreatic lipase in the presence and absence of Cr2O3 NPs. Parallel lines confirm uncompetitive inhibition.

The double reciprocal (Lineweaver–Burk) plot of 1/v versus 1/[S] (Figure 12) reveals a distinct shift in the presence of Cr2O3 NPs. The increase in the slopes of the lines indicates a decline in enzymatic efficiency, while the leftward shift of the X-intercept (−1 /K m ) suggests a decrease in K m , implying an enhanced binding affinity between the enzyme and its substrate. Additionally, the rise in the Y-intercept (1/V max) signifies a reduction in Vmax, confirming a lower overall catalytic turnover. This kinetic behaviour is characteristic of uncompetitive inhibition, in which the inhibitor binds exclusively to the enzyme-substrate (ES) complex rather than the free enzyme. The decrease in K m suggests that Cr2O3 NPs stabilize the ES complex, reinforcing substrate binding, while the reduction in V max demonstrates that the enzyme’s catalytic ability is suppressed, limiting product formation. The parallel shift observed in the Lineweaver–Burk plot, without intersection at the X-axis, further supports the classic uncompetitive inhibition model.

This kinetic behaviour is characteristic of uncompetitive inhibition, where the inhibitor binds exclusively to the enzyme-substrate (ES) complex rather than the free enzyme. In this type of inhibition:

  1. The decrease in K m suggests that Cr2O3 NPs enhance the binding affinity of the enzyme for its substrate, stabilizing the ES complex.

  2. The reduction in V max confirms that the enzyme’s overall catalytic turnover is suppressed, preventing effective product formation.

  3. The parallel shift of the Lineweaver–Burk plot (without intersection at the X-axis) aligns with classic uncompetitive inhibition models.

Uncompetitive inhibitors typically bind to a regulatory or allosteric site on the enzyme-substrate complex, altering enzyme conformation and reducing enzymatic turnover. Based on these findings, it is hypothesized that Cr2O3 NPs stabilize the ES complex through surface interactions, leading to sustained inhibition of pancreatic lipase. This mechanism differs from competitive inhibitors such as orlistat, which directly bind to the enzyme’s active site. These results suggest that Cr2O3 NPs exhibit a novel uncompetitive inhibition mechanism against pancreatic lipase, making them potential candidates for enzyme-modulating applications in obesity management [39], [40], [41].

4 Discussion

In this study, Cr2O3 NPs were successfully synthesized using DHE through a microwave-assisted green approach. This process yielded crystalline nanoparticles with a rhombohedral eskolaite structure, as confirmed by XRD, and an average particle size of 65.93 ± 13.48 nm, consistent with prior reports on phytogenic Cr2O3 NPs [6], 7], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24]. The use of durian husk – a fruit waste biomass rich in reducing polyphenols and flavonoids – reinforces the sustainability of this synthetic route, while microwave irradiation accelerated nucleation and particle formation under mild conditions [8], 10], 51].

4.1 Structure–function relationship of green-synthesized Cr2O3 NPs

The physicochemical characterizations revealed well-dispersed, quasi-spherical Cr2O3 NPs with minimal agglomeration, as shown by SEM and TEM. The FTIR spectra confirmed the presence of hydroxyl, carbonyl, and aromatic functional groups, suggesting that flavonoids and polyphenols in DHE acted as reducing and capping agents during synthesis [9], 10], 34]. These surface-bound organic moieties likely contributed to particle dispersion and biological activity.

Complementing the morphological and functional group analysis, EDX spectroscopy confirmed the elemental purity of the synthesized nanoparticles, with prominent peaks for chromium (Cr, ∼74.77 %) and oxygen (O, ∼25.23 %) – closely matching the theoretical stoichiometry of Cr2O3. The absence of any significant impurity signals underscores the chemical cleanliness of the green synthesis route [29], [42], [43], [44], [45].

Additionally, the optical properties revealed via UV–vis spectroscopy demonstrated a redshifted absorption edge and a bandgap energy of 3.32 eV, typical of nano–Cr2O3 [18], 22]. This moderate bandgap may contribute to the observed antioxidant activity by facilitating redox surface interactions and free radical quenching. Compared to earlier green syntheses of metal oxide nanoparticles employing papaya peel [46], soursop peel [47], mangosteen leaves [25], 48], 49], pomegranate husk [8], banana leaves [50], 51], durian husk [52], and lemon peel [53], this study uniquely valorises durian husk to yield structurally pure, biologically active Cr2O3 NPs. Importantly, no previous reports have investigated their biomedical enzyme inhibition, establishing the novelty of this work as the next-generation therapeutic candidates.

4.2 Antioxidant activity of Cr2O3 NPs

The DPPH and ABTS assays confirmed the antioxidant properties of Cr2O3 NPs. Although the radical scavenging activity of Cr2O3 NPs (91.94 % DPPH, 57.0 % ABTS) was lower than that of DHE (95.44 % DPPH, 90.87 % ABTS), the observed activity suggests that the NPs exhibit surface-mediated electron transfer properties. These findings indicate that the antioxidant behaviour of Cr2O3 NPs could be attributed to their electron-donating capacity and the stabilization effects of surface functional groups derived from DHE [54], [55], [56].

4.3 Uncompetitive inhibition of pancreatic lipase by Cr2O3 NP

The enzymatic inhibition studies revealed that Cr2O3 NPs significantly inhibited pancreatic lipase, with an inhibition percentage of 73.82 % at 1 mg/mL and an IC 50 value of 0.91 ± 0.01 mg/mL. These values suggest that Cr2O3 NPs exhibit moderate inhibitory potency compared to orlistat (97.18 % inhibition, IC 50  = 0.175 mg/mL) [8], 57].

Kinetic studies using the Lineweaver–Burk plot revealed a parallel shift in the presence of Cr2O3 NPs, with a decrease in both Km and Vmax, indicative of uncompetitive inhibition. This mechanism implies preferential binding to the enzyme–substrate (ES) complex, stabilising it and reducing turnover [58], [59], [60], [61]. Unlike competitive inhibitors, uncompetitive inhibition is particularly effective at high substrate concentrations – relevant to postprandial fat digestion. Similar nanoparticle-mediated modulation of lipid metabolism resonates with natural agents such as astaxanthin, which alleviates toxin-induced hepatic dysregulation [62]. Further investigation using advanced techniques such as molecular docking, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), or surface plasmon resonance (SPR) studies are necessary to elucidate binding interfaces and energetics.

4.4 Proposed mechanism of uncompetitive inhibition

The proposed mechanism (Figure 13) suggests Cr2O3 NPs interact at an allosteric site of the enzyme–substrate complex, restricting conformational flexibility required for catalysis [63], [64], [65], [66]. FTIR-detected OH and C=O groups may facilitate hydrogen bonding or electrostatic interactions with protein residues, stabilising the ES complex. This differs from Orlistat’s direct active-site blockade, offering potential for more sustained inhibition with fewer off-target effects [67], 68].

Figure 13: Proposed uncompetitive inhibition mechanism of Cr2O3 NPs against pancreatic lipase. The nanoparticles bind to the ES complex at an allosteric site, reducing catalytic efficiency without competing for the active site.
Figure 13:

Proposed uncompetitive inhibition mechanism of Cr2O3 NPs against pancreatic lipase. The nanoparticles bind to the ES complex at an allosteric site, reducing catalytic efficiency without competing for the active site.

Moreover, while pancreatic lipase inhibition is central to this study, integrating discussions on other metabolic regulators such as bile acids could provide a more comprehensive anti-obesity perspective. Recent evidence from a Mendelian randomization study demonstrated causal associations between bile acids and obesity-related traits [69], suggesting that bile acid pathways may act in a complementary or synergistic manner with nanoparticle-based lipase inhibition strategies.

Beyond obesity, targeting digestive enzymes is relevant to systemic inflammation, as evidenced by Xuebijing injection improving outcomes in acute pancreatitis [70]. Together, these findings support the translational potential of nanoparticle-based enzyme modulation.

4.5 Therapeutic relevance and green nanomedicine potential

The uncompetitive inhibition mechanism has several therapeutic advantages:

  1. Greater inhibition efficiency at high substrate concentrations

  2. Reduced competition with dietary lipids

  3. Lower risk of off-target inhibition compared to active-site blockers

When combined with the inherent antioxidant capacity and the non-toxic, sustainable synthesis route, these findings position Cr2O3 NPs as multifunctional nanotherapeutics for metabolic disorders such as obesity. Future in vivo evaluations and toxicity assessments will be critical to translate these findings into biomedical application. Moreover, the valorisation of durian husk – often discarded as fruit waste – into a high-value biomedical product reflects a circular bioeconomy approach aligned with sustainable development goals [34], 42], 52]. Similarly, sunlight-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) for mercury sensing and biomedical applications has demonstrated the feasibility of low-energy, eco-sustainable nanoparticle fabrication [71], suggesting that future optimization or functionalization of durian husk-mediated Cr2O3 NP synthesis could further enhance its green chemistry potential [72].

This approach echoes other green synthesis strategies where plant-derived extracts, such as Causonis trifolia, have been employed to generate multifunctional nanoparticles with diverse applications including heavy-metal sensing, photocatalysis, and biomedical activity [73].

Parallel studies highlight multifunctionality – Ag NPs from Equisetum diffusum serve both as Hg2+ sensors and antimicrobials [74] – suggesting Cr2O3 NPs could similarly extend into antimicrobial, diagnostic, or metabolic applications. Moreover, systemic indices such as the triglyceride–glucose (TyG) index, predictive of insulin resistance and cardiovascular risk, may offer a clinical readout for future in vivo nanoparticle studies [75]. Together, these findings setting Cr2O3 NPs within the emerging landscape of green nanomedicine.

4.6 Limitations and future prospects

Although this study successfully demonstrated a green synthesis of Cr2O3 NPs with promising in vitro pancreatic lipase inhibition and antioxidant activity, several limitations must be acknowledged.

First, all assays were in vitro; in vivo validation is essential for pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, immunogenicity, and long-term safety. Second, precise nanoparticle–enzyme interactions remain unresolved and require advanced biophysical techniques such as molecular docking, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), or surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Third, biodegradability and environmental fate must be assessed to ensure sustainable biomedical deployment. Lastly, while microwave-assisted synthesis is reproducible at laboratory scale, industrial scalability demands optimisation of extract ratios, pH, and irradiation parameters, potentially enhanced by ultrasonic or pressurised hot-water extraction. Considering nanoparticle behaviour in physiological environments (e.g., protein corona formation, immune recognition) will further support clinical translation. Addressing these gaps will be critical to advance durian husk–derived Cr2O3 NPs from proof-of-concept toward practical nanotherapeutics.

5 Conclusions

This study demonstrates a microwave-assisted green synthesis of Cr2O3 NPs using DHE, effectively converting agricultural waste into value-added nanomaterials. The resulting Cr2O3 NPs exhibit a rhombohedral eskolaite crystalline structure, quasi-spherical morphology, and an optical bandgap of 3.32 eV. Biologically, the nanoparticles show notable antioxidant capacity and moderate pancreatic lipase inhibition, with kinetic analysis confirming a distinct uncompetitive inhibition mechanism.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of durian husk-derived Cr2O3 NPs exhibiting uncompetitive enzymatic inhibition, highlighting their novelty and potential as multifunctional, eco-friendly nanotherapeutics for obesity management.

Future studies should validate these effects in vivo, investigate nanoparticle–enzyme interactions using advanced biophysical tools, assess biodegradability and biosafety, and optimise synthesis parameters for scale-up. These efforts will support the translation of green-synthesised Cr2O3 NPs into practical biomedical applications within the expanding field of sustainable nanomedicine.

Corresponding authors: Ling Shing Wong, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, INTI International University, Nilai, 71800, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, E-mail: ; and Lai-Hock Tey, Department of Chemical Science, Faculty of Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Kampar Campus, Jalan Universiti, Kampar, 31900, Malaysia, E-mail:

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) for providing the research facilities and technical support necessary to complete this study.

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, grant number UTARRPS (6251/T08).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

1. Koliaki, C, Dalamaga, M, Liatis, S. Update on the obesity epidemic: after the sudden rise, is the upward trajectory beginning to flatten? Curr Obes Rep 2023;12:514–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-023-00527-y.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

2. Boutari, C, Mantzoros, CS. A 2022 update on the epidemiology of obesity and a call to action: as its twin COVID-19 pandemic appears to be receding, the obesity and dysmetabolism pandemic continues to rage on. Metabolism 2022;133:155217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2022.155217.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

3. Patil, PJ, Dong, X, Usman, M, Bhambore, NR, Shah, H, Zhang, C, et al.. Recent trends in metal‐organic frameworks mediated lipase immobilization: a state‐of‐the‐art review. Food Saf Health 2023;1:139–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsh3.12021.Suche in Google Scholar

4. ZaibFilippatos, TD, Derdemezis, CS, Gazi, IF, Nakou, ES, Mikhailidis, DP, Elisaf, MS. Orlistat-associated adverse effects and drug interactions. Drug Saf 2008;31:53–65. https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-200831010-00005.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

5. Zainab, AS, Khan, I, Saeed, K, Ahmad, H, Alam, A. A study on green synthesis, characterization of chromium oxide nanoparticles and their enzyme inhibitory potential. Front Pharmacol 2022;13:1008182. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1008182.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

6. Yahyazadehfar, M, Ahmadi, SA, Sheikhhosseini, E, Ghazanfari, D. High-yielding strategy for microwave-assisted synthesis of Cr2O3 nanocatalyst. J Mater Sci Mater Electron 2020;31:11618–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-020-03710-2.Suche in Google Scholar

7. Deepak, HN, Choudhari, KS, Shivashankar, SA, Santhosh, C, Kulkarni, SD. Facile microwave-assisted synthesis of Cr2O3 nanoparticles with high near-infrared reflection for roof-top cooling applications. J Alloys Compd 2019;785:747–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.01.254.Suche in Google Scholar

8. Lim, WY, Dewadas, HD, Muttiah, NS, Tey, LH, Thiagarajah, K. Preliminary screening of Durio Zibethinus Linn (D197) leaf extracts for its antioxidant activity and cytotoxicity on cervix adenocarcinoma (HELA) cancer cell line. Malays J Med Health Sci 2023:19.10.47836/mjmhs.19.s9.5Suche in Google Scholar

9. Cheah, SY, Aminuzzaman, M, Phang, YK, Lim, SC, Koh, MX, Djearamane, S, et al.. Green-synthesized chromium oxide nanoparticles using pomegranate husk extract: multifunctional bioactivity in antioxidant potential, lipase and amylase inhibition, and cytotoxicity. Green Process Synth 2025;14:20240246. https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2024-0246.Suche in Google Scholar

10. Jamnongkan, T, Intaramongkol, N, Kanjanaphong, N, Ponjaroen, K, Sriwiset, W, Mongkholrattanasit, R, et al.. Study of the enhancements of porous structures of activated carbons produced from durian husk wastes. Sustainability 2022;14:5896. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105896.Suche in Google Scholar

11. Bui, NT, Hoang, TT, Nguyen, PLN, Linh, NTM, Trieu, QA, Bui, TH. Magnetic nanocomposites prepared from red mud and durian husk as an effective bio-adsorbent for methylene blue adsorption. AQUA Water Infrastruct Ecosyst Soc 2023;72:827–40. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2023.051.Suche in Google Scholar

12. Bhatt, BD, Parajuli, GC, Study on Total Phenolic Content (TPC). Total flavonoid content (TFC), and antioxidant activities of Urtica dioica of Nepalese origin. J Nepal Chem Soc 2017;37:113–8.10.3126/jncs.v37i0.32169Suche in Google Scholar

13. Chandra, S, Khan, S, Avula, B, Lata, H, Yang, MH, ElSohly, MA, et al.. Assessment of total phenolic and flavonoid content, antioxidant properties, and yield of aeroponically and conventionally grown leafy vegetables and fruit crops: a comparative study. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2014;2014:253875. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/253875.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

14. Akintola, A, Kehinde, B, Ayoola, P, Adewoyin, A, Adedosu, O, Ajayi, J, et al.. Antioxidant properties of silver nanoparticles biosynthesized from methanolic leaf extract of Blighia sapida. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 2020;805:012004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/805/1/012004.Suche in Google Scholar

15. Rub, RA, Patil, MJ, Siddiqui, AA, Ghorpade, PR, Moghe, AS. Free radical scavenging and cytotoxic potential of Celosia argentea. Pharmacogn J 2015;7:191–7. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2015.3.8.Suche in Google Scholar

16. Huan, TT, Trang, HTT, Nhung, CTC, Nhan, HH, Son, TT. In vitro study of effective factors for the inhibitory assay on pancreatic lipase. J Med Pharm 2023:7–12.10.34071/jmp.2023.4.1Suche in Google Scholar

17. Tran, TH, Mai, TT, Ho, TTT, Le, TND, Cao, TCN, Thai, KM, et al.. Inhibition of pancreatic lipase by flavonoid derivatives: in vitro and in silico investigations. Adv Pharmacol Pharm Sci 2024;2024:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/6655996.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

18. Abdullah, MM, Rajab, FM, Al-Abbas, SM. Structural and optical characterization of Cr2O3 nanostructures: evaluation of its dielectric properties. AIP Adv 2014;4:027121. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4867012.Suche in Google Scholar

19. Bumajdad, A, Al-Ghareeb, S, Madkour, M, Sagheer, FA. Non-noble, efficient catalyst of unsupported α-Cr2O3 nanoparticles for low temperature CO oxidation. Sci Rep 2017;7:14788. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14779-x.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

20. Ahmed Mohamed, HE, Afridi, S, Khalil, AT, Zohra, T, Ali, M, Alam, MM, et al.. Phyto-fabricated Cr2O3 nanoparticle for multifunctional biomedical applications. Nanomedicine 2020;15:1653–69. https://doi.org/10.2217/nnm-2020-0129.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

21. Tsegay, MG, Gebretinsae, HG, Nuru, ZY. Structural and optical properties of green synthesized Cr2O3 nanoparticles. Mater Today Proc 2021;36:587–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.05.503.Suche in Google Scholar

22. Isacfranklin, M, Ameen, F, Ravi, G, Yuvakkumar, R, Hong, SI, Velauthapillai, D, et al.. Single-phase Cr2O3 nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Ceram Int 2020;46:19890–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.05.050.Suche in Google Scholar

23. Rakesh, S, Ananda, S, Gowda, NM. Synthesis of chromium (III) oxide nanoparticles by electrochemical method and Mukia maderaspatana plant extract, characterization, KMnO4 decomposition and antibacterial study. Mod Res Catal 2013;2:127–35.10.4236/mrc.2013.24018Suche in Google Scholar

24. Iqbal, J, Abbasi, BA, Munir, A, Uddin, S, Kanwal, S, Mahmood, T. Facile green synthesis approach for the production of chromium oxide nanoparticles and their different in vitro biological activities. Microsc Res Tech 2020;83:706–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/jemt.23460.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

25. Chan, YB, Aminuzzaman, M, Tey, LH, Win, YF, Watanabe, A, Djearamame, S, et al.. Impact of diverse parameters on the physicochemical characteristics of green-synthesized zinc oxide–copper oxide nanocomposites derived from an aqueous extract of Garcinia mangostana L. leaf. Materials 2023;16:5421. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155421.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

26. Pei, Z, Zhang, Y. A novel method to prepare Cr2O3 nanoparticles. Mater Lett 2008;62:504–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2007.05.073.Suche in Google Scholar

27. Tiloke, C, Phulukdaree, A, Chuturgoon, AA. The chemotherapeutic potential of gold nanoparticles against human carcinomas: a review. In: Nanoarchitectonics for Smart Delivery and Drug Targeting. Oxford, UK: Elsevier; 2016:783–811 pp.10.1016/B978-0-323-47347-7.00028-8Suche in Google Scholar

28. Kim, DW, Shin, SI, Lee, JD, Oh, SG. Preparation of chromia nanoparticles by precipitation-gelation reaction. Mater Lett 2004;58:1894–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2003.11.023.Suche in Google Scholar

29. Usman, O, Mohsin Baig, MM, Ikram, M, Iqbal, T, Islam, S, Syed, W, et al.. Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles and study their anti-pathogenic properties against pathogens effect on plants and animals. Sci Rep 2024;14:11354. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61920-8.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

30. Babiker, MEM. Eco-friendly green synthesis of chromium oxide nanoparticles and their characterization and application. Int J Chem Biochem Sci 2024;26. https://doi.org/10.62877/8-ijcbs-24-26-20-8.Suche in Google Scholar

31. Chan, YB, Selvanathan, V, Tey, LH, Akhtaruzzaman, M, Anur, FH, Djearamane, S, et al.. Effect of calcination temperature on structural, morphological and optical properties of copper oxide nanostructures derived from Garcinia mangostana L. leaf extract. Nanomaterials 2022;12:3589. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12203589.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

32. Ruda, DA, Al-Karam, LQ, Ghadhban, E. The effect of calcination temperature and solvent on the synthesis of CuO nanoparticles and assessment as an anti-leishmania agent. AIP Conf Proc 2019;2190:020067.10.1063/1.5138553Suche in Google Scholar

33. Khan, SA, Shahid, S, Shahid, B, Fatima, U, Abbasi, SA. Green synthesis of MnO nanoparticles using Abutilon indicum leaf extract for biological, photocatalytic, and adsorption activities. Biomolecules 2020;10:785. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10050785.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

34. Zhan, YF, Hou, XT, Fan, LL, Du, ZC, Ch’ng, SE, Ng, SM, et al.. Chemical constituents and pharmacological effects of durian shells in ASEAN countries: a review. Chin Herbal Medicines 2021;13:461–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chmed.2021.10.001.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

35. Aminjafari, A, Miroliaei, M, Angelova, VT, Emamzadeh, R, Djukic, MM, Djuric, A, et al.. Antioxidant activity and protective role on protein glycation of synthetic aminocoumarins. Electron J Biotechnol 2016;24:43–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejbt.2016.08.004.Suche in Google Scholar

36. Charoenphun, N, Klangbud, WK. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of durian (Durio zibethinus murr.) pulp, seed and peel flour. PeerJ 2022;10:e12933. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.12933.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

37. Kasote, DM, Jayaprakasha, GK, Patil, BS. Leaf disc assays for rapid measurement of antioxidant activity. Sci Rep 2019;9:1884. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-38036-x.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

38. Granados-Guzman, G, Salazar-Aranda, R, Garza-Tapia, M, Castro-Rios, R, Waksman de Torres, N. Optimization and validation of two high-throughput methods indicating antiradical activity. Curr Anal Chem 2017;13. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573411013666170118111516.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

39. Silverstein, TP. When both K m and V max are altered, is the enzyme inhibited or activated? Biochem Mol Biol Educ 2019;47:446–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/bmb.21235.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

40. Bie, S, Zhao, S, Cai, S, Yi, J, Zhou, L. The profiles of free, esterified and insoluble-bound phenolics in peach juice after high pressure homogenization and evaluation of their antioxidant capacities, cytoprotective effect, and inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase and dipeptidyl peptidase-Ⅳ. Food Chem X 2024;21:101092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2023.101092.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

41. Nelson, DL, Cox, MM. Lehninger biochemie. 2001 [cited 2025 Apr 13]; Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-08289-8.10.1007/978-3-662-08289-8Suche in Google Scholar

42. Duong, NL, Nguyen, VM, Tran, TAN, Phan, TDT, Tran, TBY, Do, BL, et al.. Durian shell-mediated simple green synthesis of nanocopper against plant pathogenic fungi. ACS Omega 2023;8:10968–79. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c07559.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

43. Ghotekar, S, Pansambal, S, Bilal, M, Pingale, SS, Oza, R. Environmentally friendly synthesis of Cr2O3 nanoparticles: characterization, applications and future perspective – a review. Case Stud Chem Environ Eng 2021;3:100089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2021.100089.Suche in Google Scholar

44. A Aziz, NA, Mhd Jalil, AM. Bioactive compounds, nutritional value, and potential health benefits of Indigenous durian (Durio zibethinus murr.): a review. Foods 2019;8:96. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8030096.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

45. French, RA, Jacobson, AR, Kim, B, Isley, SL, Penn, RL, Baveye, PC. Influence of ionic strength, pH, and cation valence on aggregation kinetics of titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Environ Sci Technol 2009;43:1354–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/es802628n.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

46. Phang, YK, Aminuzzaman, M, Akhtaruzzaman, M, Muhammad, G, Ogawa, S, Watanabe, A, et al.. Green synthesis and characterization of CuO nanoparticles derived from papaya peel extract for the photocatalytic degradation of palm oil mill effluent (POME). Sustainability 2021;13:796. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020796.Suche in Google Scholar

47. Aminuzzaman, M, Chong, CY, Goh, WS, Phang, YK, Tey, LH, Chee, SY, et al.. Biosynthesis of NiO nanoparticles using soursop (Annona muricata L.) fruit peel green waste and their photocatalytic performance on crystal violet dye. J Cluster Sci 2021;32:949–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10876-020-01859-8.Suche in Google Scholar

48. Chan, YB, Aminuzzaman, M, Win, YF, Djearamane, S, Wong, LS, Guha, SK, et al.. Garcinia mangostana L. leaf-extract-assisted green synthesis of CuO, ZnO and CuO-ZnO nanomaterials for the photocatalytic degradation of palm oil mill effluent (POME). Catalysts 2024;14:486. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14080486.Suche in Google Scholar

49. Chan, YB, Aminuzzaman, M, Rahman, MK, Win, YF, Sultana, S, Cheah, SY, et al.. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study. Green Process Synth 2024;13:20230251. https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0251.Suche in Google Scholar

50. Sasidharan, S, Tey, LH, Djearamane, S, Mahmud Ab Rashid, NK, Pa, R, Shing Wong, L, et al.. Development of novel biofilm using Musa acuminata (waste banana leaves) mediated biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles reinforced with chitosan blend. J King Saud Univ Sci 2024;36:103080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2023.103080.Suche in Google Scholar

51. Sasidharan, S, Tey, LH, Djearamane, S, Ab Rashid, NKM, Pa, R, Rajendran, V, et al.. Innovative use of chitosan/ZnO NPs bio-nanocomposites for sustainable antimicrobial food packaging of poultry meat. Food Packag Shelf Life 2024;43:101298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2024.101298.Suche in Google Scholar

52. Liang, YP, Chan, YB, Aminuzzaman, M, Shahinuzzaman, M, Djearamane, S, Thiagarajah, K, et al.. Green synthesis and characterization of copper oxide nanoparticles from durian (Durio zibethinus) husk for environmental applications. Catalysts 2025;15:275. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15030275.Suche in Google Scholar

53. Heng, MH, Win, YF, Cheah, ESG, Chan, YB, Rahman, MK, Sultana, S, et al.. Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and In vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract. Green Process Synth 2024;13:20240071. https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2024-0071.Suche in Google Scholar

54. He, X, Chen, L, Pu, Y, Wang, H, Cao, J, Jiang, W. Fruit and vegetable polyphenols as natural bioactive inhibitors of pancreatic lipase and cholesterol esterase: inhibition mechanisms, polyphenol influences, application challenges. Food Biosci 2023;55:103054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2023.103054.Suche in Google Scholar

55. Seyedan, A, Alshawsh, MA, Alshagga, MA, Koosha, S, Mohamed, Z. Medicinal plants and their inhibitory activities against pancreatic lipase: a review. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2015;2015:973143–13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/973143.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

56. Tran, HK, Nguyen, NP, Nguyen, TT, Nguyen, KN, Do, BD, Nguyen, TV, et al.. Extraction of flavonoids from durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit rinds and evaluation of their antioxidant, antidiabetic and anticancer properties. Int J Food Sci Technol 2024;59:1409–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.16886.Suche in Google Scholar

57. Cheah, SY, Tey, LH, Aminuzzaman, M, Watanabe, A. Chemogenic synthesis of chromium oxide nanoparticles using sol-gel method and its potential on pancreatic lipase inhibition. INTI J 2022;2022.10.61453/INTIj.202235Suche in Google Scholar

58. Kalji, O, Sefidbakht, Y, Nesterenko, AM, Uskoković, V, Ranaei-Siadat, SO. Colloidal graphene oxide enhances the activity of a lipase and protects it from oxidative damage: insights from physicochemical and molecular dynamics investigations. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020;567:285–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2020.02.010.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

59. Li, S, Hu, X, Pan, J, Gong, D, Zhang, G. Mechanistic insights into the inhibition of pancreatic lipase by apigenin: inhibitory interaction, conformational change and molecular docking studies. J Mol Liq 2021;335:116505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.116505.Suche in Google Scholar

60. Cornish-Bowden, A. Fundamentals of enzyme kinetics. Weinheim, Germany: John Wiley & Sons; 2013.10.1016/j.febslet.2013.06.009Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

61. Ballinger, A. Orlistat in the treatment of obesity. Expet Opin Pharmacother 2000;1:841–7. https://doi.org/10.1517/14656566.1.4.841.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

62. Tan, Q, Chu, H, Wei, J, Yan, S, Sun, X, Wang, J, et al.. Astaxanthin alleviates hepatic lipid metabolic dysregulation induced by microcystin-LR. Toxins 2024;16:401. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16090401.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

63. Dunn, MF. Allosteric regulation of substrate channeling and catalysis in the tryptophan synthase bienzyme complex. Arch Biochem Biophys 2012;519:154–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abb.2012.01.016.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

64. Dennis, EA. Allosteric regulation by membranes and hydrophobic subsites in phospholipase A2 enzymes determine their substrate specificity. J Biol Chem 2022;298:101873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101873.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

65. Zhang, J, Lovell, JF, Shi, J, Zhang, Y. Nanomaterials for co‐immobilization of multiple enzymes. BMEMat 2025;3:e12080. https://doi.org/10.1002/bmm2.12080.Suche in Google Scholar

66. Lyu, Y, Scrimin, P. Mimicking enzymes: the quest for powerful catalysts from simple molecules to nanozymes. ACS Catal 2021;11:11501–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscatal.1c01219.Suche in Google Scholar

67. Tucci, S. The role of lipid and carbohydrate digestive enzyme inhibitors in the management of obesity: a review of current and emerging therapeutic agents. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2010;125.10.2147/DMSOTT.S7005Suche in Google Scholar

68. Chen, MC, Liu, TT, Wang, JP, Chen, YP, Chen, QX, Zhu, YJ, et al.. Strong inhibitory activities and action modes of lipopeptides on lipase. J Enzym Inhib Med Chem 2020;35:897–905. https://doi.org/10.1080/14756366.2020.1734798.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

69. Huang, C, Xu, S, Chen, R, Ding, Y, Fu, Q, He, B, et al.. Assessing causal associations of bile acids with obesity indicators: a Mendelian randomization study. Medicine 2024;103:e38610. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000038610.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

70. Bin, Y, Peng, R, Lee, Y, Lee, Z, Liu, Y. Efficacy of Xuebijing injection on pulmonary ventilation improvement in acute pancreatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Pharmacol 2025;16:1549419. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025.1549419.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

71. Siddique, AB, Shaheen, MA, Abbas, A, Zaman, Y, Amin, HM, Alam, MM, et al.. Sunlight-assisted greenly synthesised silver nanoparticles for highly selective mercury ion sensing, biomedical and photocatalytic applications. Int J Environ Anal Chem 2025;18:1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2025.2502605.Suche in Google Scholar

72. Lim, SC, Koh, MX, Chan, YB, Djearamane, S, Yeh, CS, Chen, CH, et al.. Green synthesis of Cr2O3-MCC microcomposite for photocatalytic degradation of Congo red, crystal violet, and methylene blue in wastewater treatment. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2025;26:106368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2025.106368.Suche in Google Scholar

73. Khalid, Z, Ali, A, Siddique, AB, Zaman, Y, Sibtain, MF, Abbas, A, et al.. Causonis trifolia-based green synthesis of multifunctional silver nanoparticles for dual sensing of mercury and ferric ions, photocatalysis, and biomedical applications. RSC Adv 2025;15:16879–93. https://doi.org/10.1039/d5ra01882j.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

74. Jabbar, A, Abbas, A, Assad, N, Naeem-ul-Hassan, M, Alhazmi, HA, Najmi, A, et al.. A highly selective Hg2+ colorimetric sensor and antimicrobial agent based on green synthesized silver nanoparticles using Equisetum diffusum extract. RSC Adv 2023;13:28666–75. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ra05070j.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

75. Li, C, Zhang, Z, Luo, X, Xiao, Y, Tu, T, Liu, C, et al.. The triglyceride–glucose index and its obesity-related derivatives as predictors of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients: insights from NHANES data with machine learning analysis. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2025;24:47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-025-02591-1.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Received: 2025-07-03
Accepted: 2026-01-28
Published Online: 2026-04-08

© 2026 the author(s), published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Green fabrication of γ- Al2O3 bionanomaterials using Coriandrum sativum plant extract and its photocatalytic and antibacterial activity
  2. Review Articles
  3. Integrating spatial analysis in the study of silver nanoparticles for radiotherapy: from molecular mechanisms to bio distribution in biological systems
  4. Review of thermal conductivity of gold nanoparticle composites
  5. Nanogenerators for energy harvesting: a holistic review of mechanisms, materials, and emerging applications
  6. Nanoparticles as SERS substrates: recent progress in hormone sensing
  7. Defected graphene oxide and applications in cement-based materials
  8. A comprehensive review of nanotechnology based drug delivery systems for osteoarthritis treatment
  9. Research Articles
  10. Dual nanofiller strategy for enhanced mechanical properties in carbon fiber reinforced polyamide blends
  11. Green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles: a pathway to sustainable energy and sensing applications
  12. Hydrothermal synthesis of Ricinus communis seed extract-mediated CQDs and their applications as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and photocatalytic agents
  13. Mechanical and thermal characterization of Kevlar–Basalt hybrid composites reinforced with Al2O3 nanoparticles
  14. A dual-responsive Luteolin nanoparticles suppresses colorectal cancer growth by targeting tumor angiogenesis
  15. Heat and mass transfer in MHD-UCM nanofluid flow past a porous nonlinear stretching sheet with chemical reaction and bioconvection: a dual-method approach
  16. Orally administered dual-responsive insulin nanomedicine for diabetes and diabetic retinopathy
  17. Comparative RSM-based study of nano, hybrid, and ternary nanofluid heat transfer with Cattaneo–Christov flux in porous media
  18. Yttrium-doped copper oxide nanoparticles: potential therapeutic applications in metabolic, neurodegenerative, arthritic, and diabetic disorders
  19. Green synthesis of alginate-encapsulated silver nanoparticles and its utilization as anticancer and antimicrobial therapeutics
  20. Improving bending fatigue lifetime and interfacial adhesion of Cu–Mn flexible interconnects using self-forming nanolayer
  21. Fe-doped ZIF-8 for sunlight-driven photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue: synthesis, characterization, and AI-based process modeling
  22. Synthesis, characterization and biological activity of metal nanoparticles with green method using apple industry waste
  23. Synthesis of multifunctional chitosan-zinc oxide composite film with antimicrobial activity for packaging applications
  24. Drop-casted Ag2O:MnO2-nanocomposite thin-films-based gas sensors for improved sensitivity CH4 and NH3 gases: fabrication and unveiling of microstructural morphology, optical, and gas sensing characterizations
  25. Removal of hexavalent chromium from aqueous systems using jujube tree branch biochar-loaded nano zero-valent iron
  26. Numerical study of thermal and solutal stratification via Williamson nanofluid model with Cattaneo–Christove heat flux
  27. Bioinspired synthesis of AgO-ZnO nanocomposite via Cucumis melo leaves: a green catalyst for efficient malachite green degradation and antibacterial applications
  28. Durian husk-mediated green synthesis of Cr2O3 nanoparticles exhibiting uncompetitive inhibition of pancreatic lipase for anti-obesity applications
  29. Numerical investigation of IgG sensing through nanoscale topological-assisted metasurface for liquid biopsy
  30. Heat and mass transfer in micropolar hybrid nanofluids with magnetic, dissipation, and slip effects
  31. Tailoring thermal properties and fiber morphology in PVA nanofibers via addition of hydrothermally synthesized strontium oxide nanoparticles
  32. Effect of localized surface plasmon resonance of Au nanoparticles on the photovoltaic performance of CIGS/Si heterojunction structures
  33. Honey-CNT memristive artificial synaptic device for sustainable neuromorphic computing system
  34. Numerical investigation and optimization of unsteady micropolar nanofluid flow over a stretching surface using response surface methodology
  35. Catalytic activity of gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis
  36. Dual-atomic Ag–Mn nanozyme/peptide coating enables ROS-driven antibacterial enhancement on ureteral stents
  37. Heat and mass transfer analysis of chemically reacted Cu/Al2O3 Casson hybrid nanofluid flow via porous medium under MHD and slip conditions
  38. Energy-aware forecasting of thermoelectric generator output in agricultural microgrids using recurrent neural networks
  39. EDTA-functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles: enhanced adsorptive removal of toxic elements from water
  40. Ti–12Ta–6Zr/xAl2O3 bioinert load-bearing orthopedic materials by spark plasma sintering: processing, microstructure, mechanical properties, and nanoindentations
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2025-0280
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
green nanotechnology; chromium oxide nanoparticles (Cr2O3 NPs); durian husk extract (DHE); pancreatic lipase inhibition; uncompetitive enzyme inhibition; anti-obesity nanomedicine
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Green fabrication of γ- Al2O3 bionanomaterials using Coriandrum sativum plant extract and its photocatalytic and antibacterial activity
  2. Review Articles
  3. Integrating spatial analysis in the study of silver nanoparticles for radiotherapy: from molecular mechanisms to bio distribution in biological systems
  4. Review of thermal conductivity of gold nanoparticle composites
  5. Nanogenerators for energy harvesting: a holistic review of mechanisms, materials, and emerging applications
  6. Nanoparticles as SERS substrates: recent progress in hormone sensing
  7. Defected graphene oxide and applications in cement-based materials
  8. A comprehensive review of nanotechnology based drug delivery systems for osteoarthritis treatment
  9. Research Articles
  10. Dual nanofiller strategy for enhanced mechanical properties in carbon fiber reinforced polyamide blends
  11. Green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles: a pathway to sustainable energy and sensing applications
  12. Hydrothermal synthesis of Ricinus communis seed extract-mediated CQDs and their applications as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and photocatalytic agents
  13. Mechanical and thermal characterization of Kevlar–Basalt hybrid composites reinforced with Al2O3 nanoparticles
  14. A dual-responsive Luteolin nanoparticles suppresses colorectal cancer growth by targeting tumor angiogenesis
  15. Heat and mass transfer in MHD-UCM nanofluid flow past a porous nonlinear stretching sheet with chemical reaction and bioconvection: a dual-method approach
  16. Orally administered dual-responsive insulin nanomedicine for diabetes and diabetic retinopathy
  17. Comparative RSM-based study of nano, hybrid, and ternary nanofluid heat transfer with Cattaneo–Christov flux in porous media
  18. Yttrium-doped copper oxide nanoparticles: potential therapeutic applications in metabolic, neurodegenerative, arthritic, and diabetic disorders
  19. Green synthesis of alginate-encapsulated silver nanoparticles and its utilization as anticancer and antimicrobial therapeutics
  20. Improving bending fatigue lifetime and interfacial adhesion of Cu–Mn flexible interconnects using self-forming nanolayer
  21. Fe-doped ZIF-8 for sunlight-driven photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue: synthesis, characterization, and AI-based process modeling
  22. Synthesis, characterization and biological activity of metal nanoparticles with green method using apple industry waste
  23. Synthesis of multifunctional chitosan-zinc oxide composite film with antimicrobial activity for packaging applications
  24. Drop-casted Ag2O:MnO2-nanocomposite thin-films-based gas sensors for improved sensitivity CH4 and NH3 gases: fabrication and unveiling of microstructural morphology, optical, and gas sensing characterizations
  25. Removal of hexavalent chromium from aqueous systems using jujube tree branch biochar-loaded nano zero-valent iron
  26. Numerical study of thermal and solutal stratification via Williamson nanofluid model with Cattaneo–Christove heat flux
  27. Bioinspired synthesis of AgO-ZnO nanocomposite via Cucumis melo leaves: a green catalyst for efficient malachite green degradation and antibacterial applications
  28. Durian husk-mediated green synthesis of Cr2O3 nanoparticles exhibiting uncompetitive inhibition of pancreatic lipase for anti-obesity applications
  29. Numerical investigation of IgG sensing through nanoscale topological-assisted metasurface for liquid biopsy
  30. Heat and mass transfer in micropolar hybrid nanofluids with magnetic, dissipation, and slip effects
  31. Tailoring thermal properties and fiber morphology in PVA nanofibers via addition of hydrothermally synthesized strontium oxide nanoparticles
  32. Effect of localized surface plasmon resonance of Au nanoparticles on the photovoltaic performance of CIGS/Si heterojunction structures
  33. Honey-CNT memristive artificial synaptic device for sustainable neuromorphic computing system
  34. Numerical investigation and optimization of unsteady micropolar nanofluid flow over a stretching surface using response surface methodology
  35. Catalytic activity of gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis
  36. Dual-atomic Ag–Mn nanozyme/peptide coating enables ROS-driven antibacterial enhancement on ureteral stents
  37. Heat and mass transfer analysis of chemically reacted Cu/Al2O3 Casson hybrid nanofluid flow via porous medium under MHD and slip conditions
  38. Energy-aware forecasting of thermoelectric generator output in agricultural microgrids using recurrent neural networks
  39. EDTA-functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles: enhanced adsorptive removal of toxic elements from water
  40. Ti–12Ta–6Zr/xAl2O3 bioinert load-bearing orthopedic materials by spark plasma sintering: processing, microstructure, mechanical properties, and nanoindentations
Heruntergeladen am 12.5.2026 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2025-0280/html?lang=de
Button zum nach oben scrollen