Home Coating of TIG-welded micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel with flux-cored wire and FeB addition: microstructure, hardness, and wear properties
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Coating of TIG-welded micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel with flux-cored wire and FeB addition: microstructure, hardness, and wear properties

  • Mustafa Kaptanoglu

    Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Kaptanoglu, born in 1981, graduated from the Metallurgy and Materials Engineering Department at Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey, in 2006. He obtained his MSc degree in 2011 and completed his Ph.D degree in 2016 in the Metallurgy and Materials Engineering Department at Firat University, Elazig, Turkey. He is employed as Vice Head of the Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, at the University of Fırat, Elazıg-Turkey. His research areas include coating, hardfacing, heat treatment, nondestructive testing, welding technology, materials science technology, etc.

     EMAIL logo     and Akin Odabasi

    Asst. Prof. Dr. Akin Odabasi, born in 1970, graduated with a B.Sc. degree at the Istanbul Technical University, Sakarya Engineering Faculty, Department of Metallurgy Engineering, Istanbul-Turkey, in 1993. He continued to study at the Istanbul Technical University, Natural and Applied Science İnstitute, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, and completed his MSc. and Ph.D., respectively, in 2004 and 2011. His main research areas are laser materials processing, welding, casting, light metal alloys, and composites.
Published/Copyright: March 27, 2025
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Materials Testing
From the journal Materials Testing Volume 67 Issue 5

Abstract

In this study, coating deposition processes were carried out by the TIG welding technique using Magmaweld FCO-540 flux-cored wire and ferroboron (FeB) additive to improve the surface properties and service life of micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel. Microstructure determination, chemical composition analyses, hardness measurement, and wear tests characterized the coatings obtained. End of the characterization processes, it was determined that there were complex carbide structures consisting of various alloying elements in the coating microstructures and these structures transform into carbides and boro-carbides and borides morphology depending on the increasing amount of ferroboron. Similarly, thanks to the use of flux-cored wire and increasing rates of FeB, the amount of alloying elements in the coatings increased and this increase caused the hardness values from 59 to 65 HRC. Besides, reductions in wear losses were determined inversely proportional to the hardness results, depending on the flux-cored wire and the increased FeB amounts. However, due to the presence of macro-size cracks in #4 and #5 samples with the highest hardness values, it has been determined that the usability of these coatings in practice is limited and there is no obstacle to the use of other coatings.

Keywords: 38MnVS6 steel; ferroboron; coating; flux-cored wire; TIG welding

1 Introduction

Material losses caused by abrasion, impact, corrosion, etc. trigger serious and vital levels of national and world economic damages. Taking precautions through coatings to prevent these losses is one of the simplest and cheapest methods [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]. As it is well known, if a hard material with good abrasion resistance is coated on a soft or ductile material by welding to improve its abrasion properties, this process is called coating or hardfacing [6], [7], [8], [9], [10]. Coating depositions are used intensively, especially in mining, agricultural equipment, construction materials, aviation, defense industry, and renewal of hard tool materials. Positive parameters such as high wear resistance obtained from the coating process, an extension of service life of materials through coatings, high performance of coatings against factors such as corrosion and impact, and coatings responding to use in different sectors constitute the advantages of coatings. Negative parameters such as thermal stresses that occur during hardfacing, surface roughness that may occur after the process, low-quality coatings that may occur depending on the operator and the preferred method, production cost, and negative parameters that may occur due to possible chemical reactions between the base metal and the coating constitute the disadvantages of coatings [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17].

Coatings can be formed using various welding techniques such as SMAW [18], GMAW [19], SAW [20], TIG [21], PTA [22], [23], laser [24], etc. In these applications, a design is generally adopted in which hard reinforcement phases in the form of carbides, borides, and combinations of these carbides and/or borides are placed on a ductile matrix. While the ductile matrix contributes to the impact resistance and energy absorption capabilities of the coating, the reinforcement phases also contribute to the development of wear resistance, corrosion, and hardness properties [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17]. This study, it is aimed to improve the surface properties of medium carbon micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steels coated using FCO-540 flux-cored wire and ferroboron addition (FeB) in the TIG welding technique. Medium carbon micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steels subject to EN 10267 standard, which are used extensively in automotive parts, and heavy-duty machines such as dozers, excavators, graders, excavators, rollers, and loaders [25], [26].

When the studies in the literature on the improvement of mechanical properties of 38MnVS6 steels are examined in detail, Suleyman et al. investigated the fatigue behavior of medium carbon steels micro-alloyed with vanadium by applying heat treatments in water and oil cooling environments, depending on the microstructure change of these steels. End of the study, it was stated that the fine-grained ferrite and pearlite phases formed depending on the cooling rate increased the fatigue strength, while the martensite phase decreased the fatigue strength [27]. Gomez and Medina [28] investigated the effect of different micro-alloying elements on the austenite and ferrite transformation of hot-rolled micro-alloy steels. In their research, they used parameters such as precipitate size, activation energy, or diffusion coefficient as constant and variable factors. At the end of the study, they stated that titanium was effective in controlling grain growth in reheating processes, aluminum in controlling grain growth at medium temperatures, niobium was effective in inhibiting static austenite recrystallization, and vanadium was effective in thinning ferrite grains [28]. Meija et al. [29] aimed to establish the relationship between the structural equations and the hot deformation test results obtained at four different temperatures between 950 and 1,100 °C and four different strain rates of micro-alloyed steels containing four different ratios of boron elements. At the end of the study, they reported that the addition of boron contributed to the toughness properties of the steel, and the results obtained and the proposed model was compatible with each other [29]. Baochun et al. [30] studied the effect of applied process parameters on grain refinement of micro-alloyed steels containing vanadium and nitrogen. In the study, the final temperature, cooling rate, and holding time on the microstructure of the tested steel were investigated. At the end of the investigation; it has been determined that low-temperature holding and rapid cooling processes are substantial factors in the refinement of the grains [30]. Alcelay et al. [31] in the characterization of flow behavior and deformation stability of medium-carbon micro-alloyed steel with artificial neural network (ANN) and dynamic material model (DMM). In the study, flow curves were obtained with the help of hot compression tests. At the end of the study, it was stated that the estimated results were compatible with the experimental results, thanks to processing maps based on the DMM that has been developed using ANN-predicted data [31]. Apart from these studies, simulation of hot rolling deformation [32], effects of V–Ti on dynamic recrystallization behaviour and hot deformation activation energy of 30MSV6 micro-alloyed steel [33], compressive deformation behaviour of thick micro-alloyed HSLA steel plates at elevated temperatures [34], deformation behavior of micro-alloyed steel by using thermomechanical simulator and finite element method [35], mechanical properties and microstructural characterization of medium carbon non-quenched and tempered steel [36], design of a novel austenitising bending process in forming characteristics of high-strength quenched and micro-alloyed steel [37], effect of micro-alloyed/alloyed elements on microstructure and properties of Fe–Mn–Al–C lightweight steel [38], microstructure evolution and enhanced mechanical properties of a novel Nb–Ti micro-alloyed medium-Mn steel [39], microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of a micro-alloyed low-density δ-TRIP steel [40] and microstructure characteristics and impact fracture mechanisms of Nb and V–Ti micro-alloyed offshore platform steels [41] at titles and there are many studies that are not mentioned here.

As can be seen, studies with medium carbon micro-alloy steels have generally focused on issues such as the effects of heat treatment and process parameters on microstructure and ductility, modeling of process parameters, and experimental results. Therefore, this study aimed to improve the mechanical properties of micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel plates through the coatings. The TIG welding technique was preferred in this study since the TIG welding technique allows the use of additional flux-cored wire or metal powder and the formation of high-quality weld seams in an inert gas atmosphere. In the study, increasing amounts of ferroboron (FeB) powder were adhered to the micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel surface during the welding process by keeping the flux-cored wire addition constant. FeB powders have adhered to the micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel surface to increase the efficiency of the wear and hardness properties of the coatings. Within the scope of the study, the coating layers obtained through welding tests were conducted for microstructure determination, chemical composition, hardness, and abrasion tests for characterization.

2 Experimental

2.1 Setup

The coating deposition processes were carried out using a TIG welding machine and a non-consumable tungsten electrode and 2.4 mm diameter FCO-540 flux-cored wire (Magmaweld, Turkey) suitable for the open arc technique was used [42]. The manufacturer produces this flux-cored wire in two different versions. In the study, FCO-540 flux-cored wire, which is sold as the first arrangement, containing lower alloying elements, was chosen. The flux-cored wire chemical composition is given in Table 1. The coating deposition was done on medium carbon micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel substrates of 120 × 30 × 10 mm. Hot-rolled micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel samples, which are employed in automotive components such as crankshafts, push rods, rotating bearings, axle journals, hubs, and piston heads, and produced in Saarstahl in Italy, were obtained from Türev Çelik, Ankara, Turkey, and their chemical composition is presented in Table 1. The coating deposition processes were carried out by adding ferroboron powders with a grain size of −100 µm on steel surfaces with different thicknesses. In these processes, the amount of FeB powders adhered to micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel surfaces at increasing rates. To stick the ferroboron powders to the 38MnVS6 steel surfaces, Na2(SiO2)nO (sodium silicate) was used as 5 wt.% of ferroboron. Ferroboron used in these processes contains 18 wt.% boron.

Table 1:

Chemical compositions of 38MnVS6 steel and FCO-540 flux-cored wire.

Substrate Chemical composition (wt.%)
C Si Mn S P Cr Mo Ni Al Cu V Fe
38MnVS6 Steel 0.41 0.52 1.37 0.05 ≤0.025 0.14 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.17 0.09 Bal.
Flux-cored wire Chemical composition (wt.%)
C Si Mn Cr Mo V W Nb B Fe
FCO-540 2.50 1.50 0.25 13.0 2.00 1.50 1.00 3.00 0.40 Bal.

As given in Table 2, Sample #1 represents 38MnVS6 steel, and the coating deposition process was not conducted on this sample. This sample was determined as a reference sample or a comparison sample. In Sample #2, FCO-540 flux-cored wire was applied to 38MnVS6 steel surfaces without FeB powders. In Sample #3, FCO-540 flux-cored wire and 1 mm thick FeB addition were applied to the 38MnVS6 steel surface. In Sample #4, FCO-540 flux-cored wire and 2 mm thick FeB addition were applied to the 38MnVS6 steel surface. In Sample #5, FCO-540 flux-cored wire and 3 mm thick FeB addition were applied to the 38MnVS6 steel surface. A representative picture of the coating deposition processes on micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel is given in Figure 1. To ignore the effects of welding process parameters, the same TIG welding parameters were used as given in Table 3.

Table 2:

Combinations of the substrate, flux-cored wire, and FeB addition in coating deposition processes.

Sample Substrate Flux-cored wire Addition Coating or reference sample
38MnVS6 Magmaweld FCO-540 FeB
#1 + – – Reference sample
#2 + + – Coating
#3 + + +1 mm thickness Coating
#4 + + +2 mm thickness Coating
#5 + + +3 mm thickness Coating
Figure 1: Schematic representation of coating deposition process on 38MnVS6 steel.
Figure 1:

Schematic representation of coating deposition process on 38MnVS6 steel.

Table 3:

TIG welding machine parameters used in coating deposition processes.

Current

(A)		 Voltage

(V)		 Argon pressure

(Bar)		 Argon flow rate

(Lt/Min)		 Welding speed

(Mm/s)		 Polarity
175 25 25 12 7 DC (+)

2.2 Microstructural and chemical composition analysis

Microstructural examinations of the coatings were carried out by classical metallographic processes. In this context, the samples were cut in 30 × 10 × 11 mm dimensions in a Tronic brand EcoCut 85V model laboratory-type wet-cutting machine without allowing any thermal conversion. Afterward, the cut samples were subjected to sanding and polishing procedures, respectively. Prepared samples were etched in nital solution (98 wt.% ethyl alcohol + 2 wt.% nitric acid) for 5 min. Nikon Eclipse-MA200iTM optical microscope was employed for the microscopic examination of etched samples. Chemical composition analyses of the prepared samples were executed using optical emission spectrometry and EPMA-EDS devices. In addition, volume fractions of hard phases in the coatings were gauged by using a metallurgical microscope interfaced with an image analysis system. In worn surface photographs; Jeol branded JSM-7001F Inca X-Act model scanning electron microscope (SEM) was executed.

2.3 Hardness and wear tests

Hardness measurements were carried out using an EMCO™ brand device with model number M4U-025. Hardness measurements were set from the cross-section of the coatings by taking the average of the 10 different regions. Hardness measurements were carried out under loads of 150 kgf on the C scale of the Rockwell hardness measurement method. Microhardness measurements were carried out under a load of 200 g using the Vickers measurement method. The samples of 10 × 10 × 11 mm dimensions were used for hardness and microhardness measurements. Measurements were made by taking the coatings from 10 different regions with a thickness of approximately 1 mm between Level 1 and Level 2 (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Schematic representation of microhardness measurement points.
Figure 2:

Schematic representation of microhardness measurement points.

Wear tests of coatings and micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel were carried out by applying Al2O3 ceramic balls of ∅ = 6 mm and 900 HV hardness to the surface of the samples using a Uts Tribometer T30 brand and model wear device with dry and linear sliding reciprocating pistons. Before the wear tests, the surface of each specimen was mechanically sanded using 1200-grit sandpaper and polished using a 1-μm grit diamond polishing solution to ensure that the wear surface was in full contact with the surface of the alumina ball. Wear tests were carried out at room temperature, under 50 N standard load, with a sliding speed of 20 mm s−1, with a stroke of 5 mm, and a frequency of 2 Hz for a fixed sliding distance of 120 m. The results of the abrasion tests were evaluated according to the volume of material loss measured by the 2D profilometer. After the wear tests, the designed wear marks were examined with an optical microscope and scanning electron microscope Jeol branded JSM-7001F Inca X-Act model scanning electron microscope (SEM).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Chemical composition

Table 4 shows the chemical composition analysis results obtained from coatings on 38MnVS6 steel substrates by optical emission spectrometry and EPMA-EDS. As can be seen in Table 4, the percentage of alloying elements of the coating layers formed on 38MnVS6 substrates increases particularly in terms of the boron component and shows similarity in terms of other coating components. Sample #2 on 38MnVS6 substrate, 1.89 wt.% C, 1.05 wt.% Mn, 9.65 wt.% Cr, 1.41 wt.% Mo, 1.03 wt.% V, 2.07 wt.% Nb, 0.22 wt.% B, 0.55 wt.% W alloying elements were determined. In particular, the percentages of C, Si, Cr, Mn, Mo, V, Nb, and W in the #3, #4, and #5 Samples are similar to the results obtained with the #2 Sample. In Table 4, it can be seen that the Samples #3, #4, and #5 contain boron elements in increasing percentages of 0.42, 0.59, and 0.73 wt.%, respectively. With the use of increasing amounts of FeB powders on the 38MnVS6 substrate, the increase in the percentage of boron element transferred to the coatings is an expected situation due to the formation of an arc temperature above the melting point of FeB during the welding process. Many alloying elements such as C, Si, Mn, Cr, Mo, V, Nb, and W have been transferred from the flux-cored wire to the coatings. In addition, it has been determined that there are partial alloying element transitions from the micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 substrate to the coating layers in diluting behavior such as C, Si, Cr, Mn, Mo, V. The percentages of basic hardening alloying elements in the coatings produced within the scope of the study are 1.70–1.95 wt.% C, 1.31–1.36 wt.% Si, 0.58–1.10 wt.% Mn, 9.5–9.84 wt.% Cr, 2.05–2.10 wt.% Nb, 0.95–1.04 wt.% V 0.55–0.65 wt.% W and 0.22–0.73 wt.% B. Other alloying elements in the coatings are included in close proportions to each other. The chemical composition analysis results obtained within the scope of the study are compared to the values obtained from the weld metal (coating layer) declared by Magmaweld, Turkey, the manufacturer of FCO-540 flux-cored wire, on S 355 quality steel and weld metal according to DIN 8555 as 2.50 wt.% C, 1.50 wt.% Si, 0.25 wt.% Mn, 13.00 wt.% Cr, 2.00 wt.% Mo, 1.50 wt.% V, 1.00, wt.% W, 3.00 wt.% Nb, 0.40 wt.% B, wt.% Fe (Bal). As can be seen, the values obtained within the scope of the study are largely similar to the results of the chemical composition analysis obtained by the flux-cored wire manufacturer. Minor differences in chemical composition analyses were attributed to additional FeB powder used, substrate dilution, and differences in device parameters [42]. On the other hand, a coating study with FCO-540 flux-cored wire on micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel could not be found in the literature. Similarly, no academic study for coating purposes using FCO-540 flux-cored wire could be found.

Table 4:

Chemical composition analysis results of coatings.

Sample Chemical composition (wt.%)
C Si Mn P + S Cr Mo Ni Al Cu V Nb B W Fe
#1 0.41 0.52 1.37 0.05 0.14 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.17 0.09 – – – Bal.
# 2 1.89 1.31 1.05 0.04 9.65 1.41 0.04 0.01 0.11 1.03 2.07 0.22 0.55 Bal.
# 3 1.85 1.35 1.00 0.05 9.84 1.43 0.03 0.01 0.09 0.99 2.04 0.42 0.61 Bal.
# 4 1.95 1.25 0.58 0.06 9.63 1.39 0.03 0.01 0.10 1.02 2.10 0.59 0.65 Bal.
# 5 1.91 1.36 1.10 0.06 9.72 1.45 0.05 0.01 0.11 1.04 2.09 0.73 0.60 Bal.

3.2 Microstructure

The microstructure photographs of the coatings obtained by using FCO-540 flux-cored wire and FeB addition in three different thicknesses on micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel substrates, taken with an optical microscope, are given in Figure3. As can be seen, in the microstructure of Sample #2, it has been determined that there is a dendritic austenite structure representing the matrix phase and structures consisting of eutectic carbides, and trace amounts of borides, and boro-carbides with complex and intricate behavior in terms of majority hard phases distribution. The phases determined as a result of microstructural evaluations are in good agreement with the statements of Magmaweld, Turkey, the manufacturer of FCO-540 flux-cored wire, and with the results of similar studies in the literature [42], [43]. In addition, the obtained microstructure result is compatible with the microstructure and chemical composition values specified in the Kotecki diagram [44], which is utilized as a reference in the classification of coating [44]. When the obtained coating alloying element percentages and microstructure photographs were considered in terms of Samples #3, #4, and #5, it was determined that the microstructures formed in the coatings consisted of primary carbides, borides, boro-carbides, and a primary austenitic matrix [43], [44], [45], [46], [47], [48]. Carbide, boride, and boro-carbide structures in the coatings can be densely located at and around the grain boundaries of the dendritic austenite matrix structure. Trace amounts of eutectic-type carbides are also present with these microstructures of coatings.

Figure 3: Optical microstructure photographs of coatings. (a) Sample #2, (b) Sample #3, (c) Sample #4, (d) Sample #5.
Figure 3:

Optical microstructure photographs of coatings. (a) Sample #2, (b) Sample #3, (c) Sample #4, (d) Sample #5.

In Sample #2, complex eutectic carbides with Cr, Nb, Mo, W, and V elements in the austenitic main matrix structure appearing in white color are typically found at the grain boundaries of the austenite matrix in dendritic form. Although the carbides in this sample do not have a clear geometry, trace amounts of hexagonal boro-carbide or boride structures are present at the center points of the grains in the microstructures. The carbides in the coating microstructure resemble the microstructure of white cast iron in general [46], [47], [48], [49]. There are partial tension cracks in Sample #2. Nevertheless, these cracks do not have a serious effect on the coating quality (Figure 3a). Sample #3 has a different microstructure appearance than Sample #2. In Sample #3, a microstructure consisting of an austenite matrix sandwiched between very densely arranged quadrangular, hexagonal, and interlocking stone-type carbides, borides, and boro-carbides was observed [43], [48]. It has been determined that these different geometries formed as primary carbides [43], [48]. The hard phases in this coating microstructure stand out with their homogeneous distribution. Compared to Sample #2, the geometry and distribution of hard phases in Sample #3 microstructure differ due to the addition of 1 mm thick FeB. Sample #3 also has very few partial tension cracks, similar to Sample #2. However, these cracks do not have a serious effect on the coating quality. In Sample #4, unlike the Samples #2 and #3, a microstructure consisting of oriented and rod-like carbides and complex boro-carbides, borides, and austenite matrix was observed. The rod-like carbides in this coating manifest themselves in the microstructure as primary carbides [43], [48]. The distribution of hard phases in the microstructure is not homogeneous. Compared to the Samples #2 and #3, the geometry of the carbides changed from the grain boundary and complex carbide and boro-carbide appearance in the quadrangular and hexagonal geometry to the rod-like morphology of 5–10 µm with the addition of 2 mm thick FeB. The matrix phase consists of an austenite phase as in all coatings. There are macro-sized tension cracks in the Sample #4. These cracks seriously affect the coating quality. In the Sample #5 microstructure, unlike the #2, #3, and #4 Samples, there are rod-like complex carbides of 20–25 µm in size, boro-carbides, borides, and austenite matrix phase structures. The distribution of hard phases in the microstructure of Sample #5 is not homogeneous. As in the Samples #3 and #4, it was determined that carbides with rod-like morphology formed as primary carbides [43], [48]. There are macro-sized tension cracks in the #5 Sample, as in the Sample #4. These cracks seriously affect the coating quality. With the increase of boron content in the samples, firstly the eutectic type carbides in Sample #2 (without FeB addition condition) changed to the primary carbides in rectangular, hexagonal, and interlocking stone stone-type geometry. At higher boron ratios, these quadrangular, hexagonal, and interlocking stone-type primary carbides transformed into rod-like or needle-like carbides as in Samples #4 and #5 [43], [44], [45], [46], [47], [48]. Magmaweld, the manufacturer of the FCO-540 flux-cored wire used in the study, describes a weld metal consisting of dense carbides in the microstructure [42].

The volume fraction ratio of the hard phases and the austenite phase in the microstructures are given in Figure 3a–d. As can be seen, the coating with the lowest hard phase volume fraction ratio was obtained by applying the FCO-540 flux-cored wire on 38MnVS6 steel substrate, in Sample #2 with a 30 % hard phase ratio. The highest hard phase volume fraction ratio was obtained by applying the FCO-540 flux-cored wire and the addition of 1 mm thick FeB on 38MnVS6 steel substrate in Sample #3 with a 35 % hard phase ratio. On the other hand, a 33 % hard phase volume fraction ratio was obtained in Sample #4 by using FCO-540 flux-cored wire and 2 mm thick FeB. In Sample #5, 34 % hard phase volume fraction ratio was obtained by using FCO-540 flux-cored wire and 3 m thick FeB. As can be seen, the use of 38MnVS6 steels as a substrate and the increase in the percentage of boron in the chemical composition of the coatings cause the change in the hard phase types and volume fraction ratio in the microstructures. However, these changes in volume fraction depend on the hard phase geometry in the coatings. Particularly, hard phases with rectangular, hexagonal, and interlocking stone-type carbides show a more homogeneous distribution in the microstructure of Sample #3. When the geometry of the hard phases in the microstructures turns rod-like; it was determined that the volume fraction of the hard phases in the microstructures decreased partially and the microstructure homogeneity decreased.

3.3 Hardness test results

The average hardness measurement values taken from the cross-section of the coatings are given in Figure 4. Sample #1 represents 38MnVS6 steel substrate and the measured hardness value is 23 HRC. While the highest hardness value with 65 HRC was obtained from Sample #5, the lowest hardness value with 59 HRC was obtained from Sample #2. For the other Samples #3 and #4, hardness results of 62 and 64 HRC were obtained, respectively. As can be seen, a hardness value of 59 HRC was obtained with Sample #2 by applying FCO-540 flux-cored wire on a 38MnVS6 steel substrate. This result is compatible with the hardness declaration of Magmaweld Company, which is the manufacturer of FCO-540 flux-cored wire produced in EN 14700 and DIN 8555 standards and the company declares that an average coating hardness of 57–62 HRC [42]. The main reasons for the small differences in hardness results with the flux-cored wire manufacturer and Sample #2 are the chemical composition of the substrates, dilution, and the amount of hard phase in the coating microstructures determined [47], [50], [51]. On the other hand, the hardness results increased linearly with the increase of boron percentage in the coatings obtained by adding FCO-540 flux-cored wire and three different thicknesses of FeB on 38MnVS6 steel substrate. This situation is seen in Samples #3, 4, and 5. In addition, the transformation of the hard phase geometry from rectangular, hexagonal, and interlocking stone-type to rod-like in the coating microstructure, the increase in hard phase volume fraction, and the transformation of carbides into primary carbides are the main reasons for the increase in hardness [43], [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51].

Figure 4: Hardness test results measured from coatings.
Figure 4:

Hardness test results measured from coatings.

The results of microhardness measurements taken from two different levels of the coatings are given in Figure5. As can be seen; microhardness measurement results were obtained in parallel with the hardness results. On the other hand, among the coatings obtained on 38MnVS6 steel, it was determined that the microhardness distribution of Samples #2 and #3 were more homogeneous. In particular, it was determined that Sample #3 has the most homogeneous microhardness distribution. In addition, it has been determined that the smaller grain size of the hard phases in rectangular, hexagonal, and interlocking stone-type geometry in this coating is important for a homogeneous distribution. Similarly, the microhardness distribution in Sample #2 is homogeneous too. In Sample #4, inhomogeneity microhardness distribution comes to the fore. Although the rod-like carbides in these coatings contribute to the increase in hardness, they cause inhomogeneity in terms of microhardness distribution. In this case, it causes the differentiation and fluctuation of the microhardness distribution in the microhardness results. Sample #5 gives inhomogeneous microhardness results similar to Sample #4. Excessive coarsening of the carbides in this coating causes a greater hardness difference between the microhardness results compared to Sample #4.

Figure 5: Microhardness test results measured from coatings.
Figure 5:

Microhardness test results measured from coatings.

When the microhardness results obtained from two different levels of the coatings are compared; Level 1 microhardness values gave higher results than Level 2 microhardness values, being the same in all coatings. This situation has been associated with the dilution effect due to the chemical composition of the base metal [52], [53], [54], [55].

Microhardness test results for the matrix phase and hard phases are given in Figure6. The microhardness results in 1,5,7, and 10 represent the austenite phase, which is the matrix phase. The result of measurement No. 2 represents a eutectic carbide, the result of measurement No. 4 represents primary carbide in rectangular geometry, measurement results No. 6 and 8 represent primary carbide in rod-like geometry, and measurement result No. 9 represents primary carbide result in hexagonal geometry. Measurement result Number 3 is thought to represent the result of microhardness obtained from a complex hard phase containing boron. Microhardness test results for the matrix phase and hard phases are compatible with the results of the study in the literature [43], [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], [53], [54], [55].

Figure 6: Microhardness test results from the phases in the coatings.
Figure 6:

Microhardness test results from the phases in the coatings.

3.4 Abrasive wear test results

In this study, abrasive wear tests were carried out on all of the samples, without changing the tribological parameters depending on the applied load, distance, sliding speed, and the opposite material. Therefore, the coating differences were obtained as a result of the wear test, and this relationship was formed in the form of microstructure-abrasion values. Abrasion tests were carried out in the linear reciprocating wear test at normal room temperature and atmosphere without lubrication. In this context, the wear loss topography of the coatings is given in Figure 7 [56]. Wear volume was calculated from the data obtained from the device. Afterward, the wear rate was calculated using the formula:

(1) W rate = V / L × D

with V: Wear volume (mm3), L: Normal load (N), and D: Sliding distance (m) [56], [57].

Figure 7: The wear loss topography of the coatings.
Figure 7:

The wear loss topography of the coatings.

The relative wear rate values given in Table 5 were found by taking 100 units of the relative wear rate value of Sample #1, which has the highest wear volume (i.e. 0,0307 mm3), and proportioning the values of the other samples to the Sample #1. According to Table 5, the sample showing the lowest (i.e. 0,00321 mm3) wear volume was Sample #3 as 0,00321 mm3 with flux-cored wire + 1 mm FeB thickness. The sample with the second lowest wear volume was obtained as 0.00480 mm3 in Sample #2 with flux-cored wire without using FeB. The third lowest wear volume was obtained as 0.00854 mm3 in Sample #4 with flux-cored wire + 2 mm FeB thickness, and the lowest wear volume was 0.00116 mm3 in Sample #5 with flux-cored wire + 3 mm FeB thickness. Depending on these wear volumes; wear rates were calculated between 8.04–19.41 × 10−7 mm3/Nm, in the same order. Accordingly, the wear rate of 38MnVS6 steel was determined as 51.45 × 10−7 mm3·(Nm)−1. In relative wear rates results, Sample #1 (represents 38MnVS6 steel) is worn approximately 10 times more compared to Sample #3. Similarly, Sample #1 is worn approximately 7 times more than Sample #2. Sample #1 is worn approximately 4 times more than Sample #4 and 3 times more than Sample #5. Although macro-size cracks are found in Samples #4 and #5, these coatings exhibit coating behaviors with higher hardness values and higher wear resistance than 38 MnVS6 steel. Accordingly, the use of FeB with a thickness of more than 1 mm with flux-cored wire causes an increase in wear losses. Sample #2 obtained by using only flux-cored wire showed superior performance than samples obtained using flux-cored wire and FeB of 2 and 3 mm thickness, respectively. It is thought that this situation is caused by the increase in the number and size of cracks and the decrease in carbide homogeneity in the microstructures due to the increase in rod-like carbide ratios. As it is well known; factors such as the amount of alloying element, the type of hard phase, the volume fraction of the hard phase, and the presence of cracks in the coatings directly affect the hardness and wear behavior of the coatings. Therefore, the use of flux-cored wire and increasing rates of FeB can lead to an effect on wear losses [43], [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], [55].

Table 5:

Wear volume, wear rate, and relative wear rate values of coatings made on 38MnVS6 steel.

Sample Wear volume

(mm3)		 Wear rate

(mm3/Nm)		 Relative wear rate

(%)
#1 0,0307 51.45 × 10−7 100
#2 0,00480 8.04 × 10−7 15.6
#3 0,00321 5.35 × 10−7 10.3
#4 0,00854 14.34 × 10−7 27.8
#5 0,00116 19.41 × 10−7 37.7

Hitachi Regulus 8230 FE-SEM scanning electron microscope images and analyses were evaluated to reveal the cracks revealed in optical microscope imaging and the distribution of microstructure components, as well as the wear trace and features. In these electron microscope photographs, which we can call the macrostructure photographs given in Figure 8, it can be said that the wear traces of samples #2 and #3 are very superficial and there are no obvious wear products around the trace. In Samples #4 and #5, the wear traces became more evident and it was observed that the wear products piled up around the wear trace and formed bumps. When the high magnification electron microscope photographs in Figure 9 were examined to reveal which wear marks were valid in the wear tests, it was observed that the microstructures of Samples #2 and #3 were formed as a result of dendritic solidification and the presence of white particles, which were presumed to be hard phases.

Figure 8: SEM images of coating wear marks.
Figure 8:

SEM images of coating wear marks.

Figure 9: High-magnification SEM images of coatings wear marks.
Figure 9:

High-magnification SEM images of coatings wear marks.

While there were cracks in the wear trace in Samples #2 and #3, these cracks were in tolerable size and small. Also, it has been determined that hard phases at austenite grain boundaries in Sample #2 and hard phases at rectangular, hexagonal, and interlocking stone-type geometries in Sample #3 dispersed homogeneously due to the smaller particle sizes. In Samples #4 and #5, hard phase geometries appearing in white are similar to Samples #2 and #3. However, it has been determined that these hard phases are not homogeneously distributed in the microstructures. In addition, it is seen in Sample #5 that there are also carbides in rod-like geometry in the background of these white hard phases and the matrix phase. These rod-like carbides both reduce homogeneity and play a role in triggering huge crack formations.

While the wear marks in Samples #2 and #3 were shallow and superficial, the slightly deeper wear traces were evident in Samples #4 and #5. In Sample #5, the traces turn deeper. Samples #4 and #5 show similar wear behavior compared to Samples #2 and #3. However, the existing large cracks in these samples affect the wear behavior locally and cause an increase in wear losses. In addition, since the rod-like carbides in the coating microstructures are not homogeneously distributed, they cause local differences in wear marks. Therefore, The hard phases contained in the #2 and #3 Samples show a more homogeneous distribution, causing the wear lines to be more superficial and decreasing the wear loss. In Samples #4 and #5, hard phases that turn into rod-like geometry trigger the formation of macro-size cracks, reducing the homogeneous distribution of the hard phases, causing the formation of more pronounced wear lines, and increasing wear losses [46], [47], [51], [53], [54], [55].

4 Conclusions

The scope of the study aims to improve the mechanical properties of micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steels using FC0-540 flux-cored wire and three different amounts of FeB addition in the TIG welding technique by a coating deposition process. In this direction; microstructure, chemical composition, hardness, and wear characterization tests of the coatings obtained were carried out. At the end of the study,

  1. Hard phases were observed in quadrangular, hexagonal, interlocking stone-type, and rod-like geometries in coating microstructures depending on the FC0-540 flux-cored wire and increasing FeB addition.

  2. Rod-like carbides in the coating microstructures obtained on micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel substrates play an important role in the increase of hardness. However, these carbides cause the inhomogeneous distribution of microhardness results, trigger the formation of cracks, and decrease the wear resistance.

  3. The homogenization of the microhardness distribution, the formation of hard phases as rectangular, hexagonal, and interlocking stone-type, and the improvement of wear properties were obtained depending on the optimum flux-cored wire and FeB addition.

  4. Micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steels, which are commonly aimed to improve their mechanical properties by heat treatment in general, have been successfully coated with flux-cored wire and FeB addition in the TIG welding technique, thus improving their mechanical properties.

Corresponding author: Mustafa Kaptanoglu, Firat University, Elazig, Türkiye, E-mail:

About the authors

Mustafa Kaptanoglu

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Kaptanoglu, born in 1981, graduated from the Metallurgy and Materials Engineering Department at Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey, in 2006. He obtained his MSc degree in 2011 and completed his Ph.D degree in 2016 in the Metallurgy and Materials Engineering Department at Firat University, Elazig, Turkey. He is employed as Vice Head of the Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, at the University of Fırat, Elazıg-Turkey. His research areas include coating, hardfacing, heat treatment, nondestructive testing, welding technology, materials science technology, etc.

Akin Odabasi

Asst. Prof. Dr. Akin Odabasi, born in 1970, graduated with a B.Sc. degree at the Istanbul Technical University, Sakarya Engineering Faculty, Department of Metallurgy Engineering, Istanbul-Turkey, in 1993. He continued to study at the Istanbul Technical University, Natural and Applied Science İnstitute, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, and completed his MSc. and Ph.D., respectively, in 2004 and 2011. His main research areas are laser materials processing, welding, casting, light metal alloys, and composites.

Acknowledgments

This study was carried out by using the laboratory facilities of Fırat University. The authors acknowledge Dr. Oktay Yiğit, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Firat University, TR, for performing an effort to set up an experimental design.

  1. Research ethics: Not applicable.

  2. Informed consent: Not applicable.

  3. Author contributions: The authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  4. Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.

  5. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  6. Research funding: None declared.

  7. Data availability: The raw data can be obtained on request from the corresponding author.

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Published Online: 2025-03-27
Published in Print: 2025-05-26

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  2. Review on three-point bending test for evaluating the mechanical properties, fracture behavior, and adhesion strength of coating/substrate systems
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  4. Effect of process parameters on mechanical properties of 5554 aluminum alloy fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing
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https://doi.org/10.1515/mt-2024-0483
Keywords for this article
38MnVS6 steel; ferroboron; coating; flux-cored wire; TIG welding
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Review on three-point bending test for evaluating the mechanical properties, fracture behavior, and adhesion strength of coating/substrate systems
  3. Gas metal arc weldability of a Strenx 700MC-AISI304 dissimilar joint
  4. Effect of process parameters on mechanical properties of 5554 aluminum alloy fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing
  5. Coating of TIG-welded micro-alloyed 38MnVS6 steel with flux-cored wire and FeB addition: microstructure, hardness, and wear properties
  6. Manufacturing parameters’ effects on the flexural properties of 3D-printed PLA
  7. Modified hot-spot stress method for fatigue life estimation of welded components
  8. Water as blowing agent in polyurethane resins creating porous cancellous bone surrogates for biomechanical osteosynthesis applications
  9. Enhancing cervical spine health: a vibration-focused multibody dynamics model for neck support system design
  10. Characterization of novel fibers extracted from Rumex obtusifolius L. plant for potential composite applications
  11. Interface metallurgical characteristics of dissimilar friction welded steels
  12. Effect of atmospheric pressure plasma treatment on the wettability and aging behavior of metal surfaces
  13. Microstructure and mechanical properties of dissimilar ferritic (S355)–austenitic (AISI 304) steel joints welded by robotic GMAW
  14. Enhanced Greylag Goose optimizer for solving constrained engineering design problems
  15. Effect of sustainable cooling and lubrication method on the hole quality and machinability performance in drilling of AA7075 alloy with cryogenically treated carbide drills
  16. Design optimization of a connecting rod for energy savings
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