Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge from Ethiopia’s Ancient Cultural Heritages

1.1 Gadala Ahaw: Background Information

The Ge’ez term “Gadala Ahaw” literally translates to “the acts of brothers,” referring to individuals with similar ideologies and doctrines. The “Gadala Ahaw” manuscript details the actions of a group known as the Stephanites who emerged in the monasteries of Tigray, Ethiopia, in the fifteenth century AD (Kaplan 1984, 41–44). The movement was named after a monk, Abba Estifanos, who initiated this reformation within the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia, primarily in Tigray. The primary objective of the Stephanite movement was to instigate transformation within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian state. Abba Estifanos organized his teachings into a doctrine and his followers into a distinct sect. The “Gadala Ahaw” manuscript, written in Ge’ez, provides various accounts, from Abba Estifanos’s childhood and his reformation movement to the persecutions faced by the Stephanites in the fifteenth century. However, this paper focuses solely on the content analysis of Abba Estifanos’s “Reformation Ideas” and their relevance to the secular values of labor and work ethics.

1.2 A Brief Biography of Abba Estifanos, the Reformist

Our primary objective in studying the Gadala Ahaw Ge’ez manuscript is to glean insights from the legacy of Abba Estifanos, to whom the manuscript is dedicated. We thus believe it is essential to provide readers with a brief biography of Abba Estifanos which was obtained directly from the Gadala Ahaw manuscript itself. Abba (Father) Estifanos was an Ethiopian monk renowned for his reformation movement within the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Church in the fifteenth century. Born in 1380 in Tigray, Ethiopia, his given name was “Hedge Anbesa” which translates to “reminiscent of a lion.” This moniker was a tribute to his father, a well-known combatant soldier nicknamed “the lion.” While studying at church, Estifanos was sanctified as a deacon by Abune Bartalomiwos at the age of 18. He subsequently joined the Qoyetsa Monastery of Abba Samuel in the Shire region of Tigray. It was here that he became a priest and then a monk at the age of 30. Following this, his name was changed from Hedge Anbesa to Abba Estifanos.

Abba Estifanos continued his service to the church by transitioning from one monastery to another. Despite his efforts he found neither satisfaction nor peace of mind. This led Abba Estifanos to reflect on the teachings of Lord Jesus Christ concerning salvation for all humanity. He began to instruct on the Scriptures and the enigma of salvation, ceasing to practice the centuries-old rituals and worship methods adopted by the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Church. He started to transcribe his teachings into a doctrine and to replicate the Scriptures, distributing them to various monasteries to address the scarcity of Bible manuscripts. He assembled a group of individuals to aid in the propagation of his new ideology on the nature of God as depicted in the Bible, which came to be known as the Stephanite Movement, a name derived from the movement’s leader, Abba Estifanos. In his new doctrine, Abba Estifanos expressed opposition to the worldly ways of the monks and priests. He criticized the act of bowing down to the king and other high-ranking officials. He rejected the assertion of Ethiopian rulers being descendants of King Solomon of Israel and their association with the Solomonic Dynasty. He ceased the worship of images of Saints, angels, and rulers.

Abba Estifanos’ teachings and doctrine garnered a significant following. However, his new doctrine also incited strong opposition from other monks in the Orthodox Church and from King Zara Ya’qob (r.1434–1468). Abba Estifanos and his followers were accused of heresy for deviating from the Orthodox Christian Church’s norms. State rulers also leveled many accusations against him for his refusal to bow before the king. Additional sources suggest that Abba Estifanos’ new doctrine and lifestyle were the causes of his persecution and ultimately his death (Kaplan 1984, 41–44; Teweldebirhan 2019). Interestingly, a story told by the local people describes an event said to have occurred during Abba Estifanos’ death. The story, which is said to have been written in the Orthodox Church devotional book called Te’amere Mariam (The Miracles of Mary) by the order of King Zara Ya’qob, states that after Abba Estifanos was killed for his actions, St. Mary and God sent down a glowing light expressing their contentment. This light was said to have shone on a mountain, which was subsequently named Debra Birhan (the mount of light).

The followers of Abba Estifanos were subjected to frequent beatings and persecutions. It is widely believed that these followers, known as Daqiqe Estifanos (children or followers of Estifanos), relocated to the present-day Gunda Gundo Monastery to evade the regular harassment from the kings of medieval Ethiopia. The Gunda Gundo Monastery is commonly believed to have been established by the Daqiqe Estifanos. Since its inception, the monastery has served as a sanctuary for both people and cultural heritages. It is likely due to this protective role that we discovered the Gadala Ahaw manuscript within the confines of the Gunda Gundo Monastery.

1.3 Bahire Hssab: Background Information

This manuscript is recognized by two alternative names, “Bahire Hasab” and “Abushakir.” In Ethiopia it is a common tradition to name an object to show respect or to express curiosity about the object or the meaning it carries. The first name of the manuscript is dedicated to John Abushakir. According to local informants, John Abushakir was a prominent mathematics teacher in the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Church (information provided by Yared Kassa, a distinguished scholar in the church education of Tigray, Ethiopia). John Abushakir arrived in Ethiopia with a group of Christian missionaries from the Coptic Church in Alexandria, Egypt, at some point in ancient times. The manuscript is believed to have been written by Ethiopian church scholars, and upon its completion they dedicated it to the well-known teacher, John Abushakir. Other sources also suggest that Abu Shakir was a deacon of the Mu Allaqa Church in Cairo during the mid-thirteenth century A.D (Pingree and Shaker’s 1991, 166). Pingree (ibid.) also noted that the Ethiopic text, the “Abushakir manuscript,” which consists of 59 chapters, was studied by Neugebauer under the title “Abushakir Chronography” in Ethiopic (Ge’ez) sources. Pingree and Shaker’s (1991, 166) further suggested that the translation of this “Chronography” into Ge’ez might have been completed in 1318/19 A.D. Conversely, its second name, “Bahire Hasab,” is linked to the concept of “in-depth thought.” In both Ge’ez and Tigriyna, the word “Bahire” translates to “Ocean” and “Hasab” refers to thought. Therefore, “Bahire Hasab” symbolizes a thought as deep and vast as an ocean. This suggests that the creation of a calendar and the mathematics involved require profound and extensive thought.

4.1 Heritage Content Selection

Our content selection for heritage knowledge extraction stems from the problem that we identified earlier, that there has been a clear knowledge gap in the secular value of time and labor among the Christian farmers of Tigray, Ethiopia (Haile 2024). From the extensive and intensive survey we searched for heritage contents that can be seen as a source of knowledge for the problem identified and claim that Ethiopia’s ancient Ge’ez parchment manuscripts could be sources of heritage knowledge if systematically studied. We selected one Ge’ez parchment manuscript for content analysis related to secular value time, and another Ge’ez parchment manuscript for the secular value of labor and work ethics. Accordingly, we identified these two manuscripts for our purpose:

1. Bahire Hassab Ge’ez parchment manuscript

2. Gaddla Ahaw Ge’ez parchment manuscript

However, during our survey period we found that there are several manuscripts that are similar to what we selected for content analysis. Since our objective is to undertake content analysis from the most ancient manuscripts in the relevant genres, we used several techniques to choose the oldest and ancient genres from among those available:

1. subject matter and provenance

2. chronological and geographical context

3. relative age and credibility

4. palaeographic and linguistic development

5. marginalia and colophon

In this study we do not establish dates with absolute precision as this work requires carbon dating. Instead, we used relative dating to place each manuscript in the appropriate time period in the history of manuscript production in Ethiopia. Relative dating works based on how information flows from older times and texts to newer ones, and how information from more recent times can be incorporated into older texts (Davis-Hale 2007, 23–27). It also takes into account paleographic and linguistic developments. In this context, it is necessary to define and illustrate a principle on how more recent information can be incorporated into older texts. For instance, when a culture has a very old document, a more modern reader might find certain aspects of the old document difficult to understand. Therefore, certain modifications to the oldest text may be made to help the more modern reader understand it. Also, if the old text references geography unknown to a modern audience, the copier might update these geographic references. Similarly, in an old text the grammar might be archaic, so a more modern copier might update the grammar. Other steps might also be taken to update an older text to ensure that a modern audience can understand it. Moreover, modern issues and concerns, unknown in the time of the ancient document, might be added while copying or omitting some phrases or paragraphs. Equally important is to define how information can flow forward in time. If a culture has an old document available, newer texts can and will draw information from the old document. This forward information flow is especially heavy when the text is central to a culture’s history, religion, and legal background. But it is noteworthy that although almost all the information in an old document has the potential to flow into newer documents, in practice only a limited amount of information will do this. Paleographic development over time, such as changes in language, writing style, size of letters, etc., are also important issues to consider while making a relative date assessment.

Below we present the methods and techniques we used to select one Bahire Hasab manuscript from among similar genres and one Gadala Ahaw manuscript from among similar genres.

1. Bahire Hassab Ge’ez Parchment Manuscript and its Selection Processes

Regarding provenance and genre, we have discovered three Ge’ez manuscripts titled Bahire Hasab from two monasteries in Tigray, Ethiopia. Two manuscripts, referred to as MS G1 and MS G2, are from the Gunda Gundo Monastery, and the third manuscript, referred to as MS M1, is from the Medhine Alem (Saviour of the World) monastery. Manuscripts are handwritten texts that can be easily altered or modified during copying. Therefore, it is essential for a researcher to have access to more than one manuscript for various reasons, such as determining the relative age of a specific manuscript, supplementing missing, omitted, or altered content, and observing the trends in the change and continuity of the ideas within the manuscript.

4.2 Physical Description

The Abushakir Ge’ez manuscript is a handwritten document in the form of a codex. The manuscript was written in the Ge’ez language. Some descriptions in the marginalia are in the Amharic language but these were added later. Parchment, a well-treated and refined animal skin, was used as the writing material. Both the parchment and the ink used for writing are locally sourced and prepared. The inks commonly observed are red and black. The red ink was primarily used for the names of God and saints and for special notes in the tables and footnotes (marginalia). In contrast, black ink was used to write the entire contents of the manuscript.

The original parchment manuscripts appear to have been covered by a wooden board and leather. However, these covers are now in a poor state of preservation. The dimensions of the manuscripts are as follows: MS G1 measures 21.8 × 16.3 cm, MS G2 measures 16.8 × 15.9 cm, and MS M1 measures 22 × 16.6 cm. MS G1 contains 74 folios, MS G2 contains 35 folios, and MS M1 contains 51 folios. MS G1 features 34 illustrated tables decorated in red and black ink and five illuminations, while MS M1 has 26 illustrated tables and six illuminated pages. Due to missing and torn out folios, the total number of pages and illustrations may not be complete. For instance, in MS G1, four folios are missing and half of the 16 folios are torn out. Both manuscripts exhibit damage on the cover page, binding, leaves, and words.

The page layout and style of writing are additional physical features of the manuscripts. The pages are not numbered with Ge’ez numerals, but there are page numerals written in Arabic numerals, which are different from Ge’ez and appear to be later additions. All the manuscripts feature decorations and tables. For instance, MS G1 and MS M1 include a depiction of a solar system, represented as a circle with a cross-like figure. In MS M1, there is an image of a man (possibly Jesus?) depicted from the neck up, with his hands stretched out from within the circle, possibly symbolizing the solar system or time calculation. The man’s nailed legs are shown at the bottom of the picture. Regarding the writing style, MS G1 was written with relatively large letters, while MS G2 and MS M1 were written with medium-sized letters. All manuscripts have spaces between the lines and the pages were written in two columns. There are also word dividers represented by two dots. The penmanship of the manuscript is generally clear, with some exceptions.

4.3 Palaeography, Folios, and Marginalia

Paleography serves as one of the measures for determining the age of a manuscript, encompassing both the physical material and the text. The evaluation criteria employed are those established by Uhlig (1990) and Bausi, Gori, and Lusini (2014). The paleography of the manuscripts appears to be quite ancient, likely dating from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. However, each manuscript varies in age. The paleography of MS G1 and MS G2 appears older than that of MS M1. Similarly, MS G1 seems older than MS G2. A single manuscript could exhibit paleographic differences due to the writer or the age which implies that if a manuscript is written by two or more individuals there will inevitably be some degree of paleographic variation. Another possibility is that different sections of the manuscript could have been written at different times. For example, if a person began writing a manuscript and stopped midway for various reasons, the remaining part might be completed years later. Regardless of the reason, the physical material is older than the text of the manuscripts. Therefore, the text could not be older than the physical material.

Folios are the leaves of the manuscripts, consisting of a front page (recto) and a back page (verso). Each manuscript contains a different number of folios. For example, Manuscript MS G1 has more folios than the other two manuscripts. Some folios in the manuscripts are left blank which is a common practice in Ethiopian manuscript production, especially at the beginning and end of the manuscripts. For instance, Verso 24 of manuscript MS M1 is entirely a table with no written information. Verso 48 is also blank. Verso 59 of MS G1 and Verso 64 have no writing at all. Verso 22 and Recto 39 of MS G2 are also left blank. These unwritten spaces are primarily used for marginalia and a colophon, typically added as soon as the writing is finished but sometimes at later times. They are used to describe ideas about the name of sponsors to the manuscript production, land issues, taxes, names of kings, and general history of the time, etc. Regarding the column structure of the manuscripts, all three are written in two columns. The table below provides detailed information about the folios and their features.

As indicated in the above Table 1, the manuscripts vary in the number of folios they contain, ranging from a minimum of 35 to a maximum of 74. A single folio consists of two pages (recto and verso). For example, MS G1 comprises 74 folios and 140 pages. However, since manuscripts are unpaged documents, we typically refer to the number of folios and their recto and verso pages. This method provides a more accurate representation of the manuscript’s length and structure.

Marginal and colophon notes are frequently used and can be found in the left, right, top, and bottom margins of the manuscripts. The top and bottom margins are used more often than the others. In total, there are more than 39 marginal notes across the three manuscripts. MS G1 contains more than eight marginal notes, MS M contains 23, and MS G2 contains more than seven. The marginalia, found on both the recto and verso of each manuscript, serve specific purposes, being primarily used for clarification and announcements. If one or more ideas are omitted in the main text the writer uses marginalia to include the omitted ideas and to clarify the idea explained in the text for the reader. Announcements are often related to religious matters. Even though they are not always at the beginning or the end of the manuscripts, some of the marginalia are related to the colophon. For example, verso 37 of MS G1 has a marginal note similar to a colophon which describes the producer and the person who donated the manuscript to the monastery. We present one marginalia note in its Geez version and its English translation below.

ዛቲ መፅሓፍ ዘአባ ተወልደ መድህነ ዘወሃባ ለቤተክርስቲያን ዘጉንዳጉንዲ ከመ መድሓኒተ ነፍሱ ዘሰረዎ ወዘረሓም ውጉዘ ይኩን በቃለ ጴጥሮስ ወጳውሎስ

This book belongs to Abba/Father Tewelde Medhin and was given to the church of Gunda Gundo. Anyone who steals it and departs from it, like the medicine of his soul, shall be condemned by the words of Peter and Paul. This indicates that Abba Tewelde Medhin either wrote this book or commissioned others to write it as a gift to the church in order to receive grace through it. Generally, the manuscripts are endowed with marginalia.

4.4 Establishing Relative Age and Credibility of Abushakir Manuscript

Establishing the relative age and credibility of the Abushakir manuscript is a complex process. The overall condition of the manuscript does not conclusively determine its age. Even a relatively recent manuscript could show signs of deterioration due to poor handling or inadequate conservation efforts. More reliable indicators of the manuscript’s relative age are its content and paleography which can provide clues about the period in which it was actually written. However, to determine the absolute age of the manuscript, carbon dating would be required. This scientific method can provide a more precise estimate of the manuscript’s age. It is important to note that the credibility of the manuscript is also determined by other factors such as its provenance, the reputation of its author(s), and its consistency with other known historical facts. Moreover, factors like parchment or paper type, ink, and layout give insights into the manuscript’s origin and purpose.

4.5 Why Do We Need to Date a Manuscript?

Manuscripts are indeed historical objects and their correct interpretation relies heavily on their placement within the appropriate chronological and geographical context. Furthermore, as archaeological objects, manuscripts carry information about the environment that produced them, an environment that can be partially defined by its position in space and time. There are two types of dating systems used in this context: absolute and relative. An absolute dating system assigns a precise age to an object in numerical terms. On the other hand, relative dating determines the order in which events occurred based on whether an object is younger or older than another similar object (Davis-Hale 2007). When it comes to reconstructing a family tree (Stemma Codicum) of manuscripts, several criteria are used. One such criterion is the codex optimum (the best codex/manuscript), a very old criterion where a manuscript that appears to have the most accurate and smoothest text is chosen and printed in all editions. Another method is the codices plurimi (“the most codices/majority manuscripts”) where the reading found in the majority of the manuscripts is preferred. The third method, accepted by most modern scholars, is the Lachmnian method. This method emphasizes two important points: recentiores non-deteriores (“the more recent manuscripts are not the worst”) and lectio difficilor (“the most difficult reading is most probably of an older time”). These principles guide the interpretation and understanding of manuscripts, contributing to our knowledge of history and culture. In the following, we present our attempt to make a relative date assessment on two Ge’ez manuscripts.

MS G1 and MS G2 form one group, and manuscript MS M forms another group. MS G1 and MS G2 share several common points. Both manuscripts are found in the same area. Both manuscripts begin directly with a table rather than with prose. Their decorations, mainly circles (about the solar system), are very similar. Paleographically, the two manuscripts are more similar. Both of them have bottom marginalia. Based on this it can be concluded that the two manuscripts belong to the same group: one is the archetype (older) and the other is the sub-archetype (younger). The manuscript of MS G1 appears slightly older and MS G2 is clearer and more legible than MS G1. Thus, based on the two points of the Lachmannian method, manuscript G1 appears to be the Vorlage of G2.

4.6 Gaddla Ahaw Ge’ez Parchment Manuscript

For this content analysis we gathered two versions of a single manuscript: Gadala Ahaw (hereafter referred to as MS G) from the Gunda Gundo Monastery in Tigray and Gadala Abaw-wa-Ahaw (hereafter referred to as MS I-EMML) from the library of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. These manuscripts share similarities and differences. Both manuscripts provide an account of the Stephanite movements, marking their similarity. However, they differ in their emphasis. MS I-EMML focuses more on the actions of the Fathers who supported and occasionally led the Stephanite movement. In contrast, MS G highlights the deeds of Abba Estifanos, the founder of the “reformation” movement. Another point of difference between these two manuscripts is their age. After assessing their physical (binding, cover page, size) and paleographic (writing style, letter size, etc.) conditions, we concluded that MS G is older than MS I-EMML. The geographical locations where they were found also provide clues for comparing their ages. Therefore, we have selected MS G for the content analysis in this study. This recent work places greater emphasis on the legacy of Abba Estifanos, particularly his secular value of labor and work ethics, and his inspirational actions that led to reformation.

4.7 Physical Description of Gadala Ahaw

The manuscript is composed of parchment and inscribed in Ge’ez. It is encased in wood and leather. The manuscript measures 21.8 × 16.3 cm. It consists of 87 folios which equates to 174 pages when considering both the recto and verso of a folio. However, it is an unpaged manuscript. Compared to MS I-EMML, MS G is written with larger letters. The manuscript is structured in two columns. Black and red inks were utilized for writing. Typically, red ink is used to inscribe the names of God, Angels, and Saints. In MS G, a red pen is also employed to write numerals indicating a period. A period is denoted by five dots arranged in a cross shape and two dots are used as a word divider. A new chapter commences with a decoration locally referred to as Harag (ሐረግ). According to Liqe Liqawunt Yared Kassa, Harag is a crucial indicator for the start of a chapter as there are no chapter headings in the tradition of Ge’ez manuscript production. Each decorated Harag is succeeded by the phrase “The Father, The Son, and The Holy Ghost.”

The manuscript’s cover page is severely damaged and numerous pages have holes, notably from folio 5 to folio 14. The front folios are absent. During our analysis, we endeavored to supplement the missing concepts from the front-page folios of MS I-EMML. Given its physical condition, it can be concluded that the manuscript is poorly preserved. Therefore, unless immediate measures are taken, this crucial document, which sheds light on the history of Medieval Ethiopia, is at risk of being lost.

4.8 Digitizing and Translating of Sample Ge’ez Parchment Manuscripts

We digitized and translated the Ge’ez scripts into English in order to undertake content analysis. We used Gaddla Ahaw Ge’ez parchment manuscripts in order to develop heritage knowledge on the secular value of labor and work ethics whereas we used the Bahire Hasab (also known as Abushakir) Ge’ez parchment manuscript in order to develop heritage knowledge on the secular value of time.

5.1 Reclaiming and Unlocking Heritage Knowledge from Gaddla Ahaw and Bahire Hassab Ge’ez Parchment Manuscripts

One of the most significant legacies of Abba Estifanos, as reflected in the Gadala Ahaw Ge’ez manuscript, is his concept of labor. In his teachings and reformation themes, Abba Estifanos drew a clear distinction between the commonly held concept of work and the type of work that people should undertake on earth. As a result, he instructed his students to engage in irrigation agriculture during the day and pursue their education at night, thereby introducing the concept of part-time workers. He also sought to introduce a reform that would free peasants from paying multiple taxes to the government, the church, and their father confessors. This reform was first unveiled in an area known as Qoyetsa, leading to the reform being named Netsa Kem Qoyetsa, which translates to “Free as the free people of Qoyetsa.” Another distinguishing feature of his reformation agenda was his emphasis on building the authority of the mind within society. This was aimed at enabling Christian followers to develop self-consciousness and understand the true nature of God and the Bible. He envisioned creating awareness within monastic society about the true nature of the Bible and helping society distinguish between “noise” and a “signal,” i.e., the difference between the stories of miracles inscribed in the old sacred Scriptures and the Bible. His doctrine on the purpose of human life on earth and its relation to the idea of God’s glorification was another innovative contribution of Abba Estifanos.

In the following sections, we present the contributions of Abba Estifanos’s teachings in Ge’ez, as directly quoted from the Gadala Ahaw Ge’ez manuscript, and provide an English translation of the same text. Subsequently, we discuss the implications of his teachings and doctrine in relation to his concept of the secular value of labor and work ethics.

5.2 Understanding Labor Ethics in Gaddla Ahaw Ge’ez Manuscripts: Extracts from Gaddla Ahaw Ge’ez Manuscript and an English Translation of the Same Text

“ወወጠነ ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ግብረ ተሃድሶ በምሂረ ኣርዳኢሁ እንዘ ይብል ፅድቅስ ይትረከብ በፀጋ እግዚአብሔር በኣሚን ወበምሕረቱ ለመስቀለ ኢየሱስ ወኣኮ በሰጊድ ለቅዱሳን ወኢ ለስእላት ዘሃይማኖት” (MS G, f. 38v).

Abba Estifanos initiated his reformation efforts by instructing his followers that salvation is achieved through the grace of God, by faith in the redemptive act of Jesus’ crucifixion, rather than through the reverence of saints and religious icons.

“ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ምህሮሙ ለኣርዳኢሁ ከመ ይትሃፀኑ በወንጌል ወከመ ይትፋቀሩ በበይናቲሆሙ ከመ ይንበሩ ምስለ እግዚአብሔር ዘለዓለም። ውእቱ ኣስተራትዓ ዘንተ ኢይነብር መኑሂ ለትእዛዛት ኣው ለመላእክት ኣው ለቅዱሳን ኣው ለመነኮሳት እመኒ ሃለወ ወእመኒ ሞተ መኑመሂ ዘእግዚአብሔር ውእቱ።” (MS G, f. 39r).

Abba Estifanos instructed his followers to deepen their understanding of the gospel and to cultivate love for one another, with the aim of living eternally with God. He asserted that one’s life is not lived for rulers, saints, angels, or monks. Whether one lives or dies, one ultimately belongs to God.

“ወዘልፈ ይሜህር እንዘ ይብል ፅድቅሰ ይትረከብ በፀጋ ባህቲቱ በኣሚን ወኣኮ በግብር” (MS G, f. 40v).

Abba Estifanos consistently preached that salvation is attained solely through grace and faith, not through church activities.

“ውእቱ ይቤ ሰናይ ግብር (ኣክብሮ በዓላት፣ ፀውዖ ማኅበር ለፍስህ በዘቦቱ ይሴሰዩ ብዙሃ መባልዕት፣ ውሂብ ዘሃሎ ለዘኣልቦሙ ምንተኒ፣ ተቀንዮ ለነገሥት ወለመነኮሳት ዘእንበለ እሴት) ኢኮነ መቅድመ ነገር ለፅድቅ ኣላ ፍሬ ፅድቅ ውእቱ።” (MS G, f. 44v).

Abba Estifanos stated that religious practices such as observing lengthy holidays, organizing social gatherings where available food is consumed, sharing what one has with those who do not, and offering free service to rulers and monks are not prerequisites for salvation. Instead, he taught that these are the fruits of salvation.

“ወፈለጠ ኣእምሮ ዘሃይማኖት ዘትተሉ ጥበበ ሰማይ እምነ ኣእምሮ ምድራዊት ዘትተሉ ሃይለ ዘተፈጥሮ” (MS G, f. 41r).

Abba Estifanos distinguished between religious knowledge, which utilizes the wisdom of the heavens, and terrestrial knowledge, which employs the forces of nature.

“ኣምነ ዘንተ ተራክቦ ማእከለ ሰብእ ወተፈጥሮ ሃለዎ ይኩን በኣመክንዮ ወኣኮ በተኣምራት” (MS G, f. 30r).

Abba Estifanos held the belief that the relationship between human beings and nature should be grounded in reason, rather than being influenced by miracles.

“ወኣንቅሃ ህዝብ ከመ ይትገበሩ ወይሴፈዉ ለዘይሴኒ ህይወት ምድራዊ።” (MS G, f. 10r)

Abba Estifanos encouraged people to work and aspire for a better life through earthly possibilities.

“ውእቱ ኣምነ ተገብሮ በትጋህ ይበቁዕ ለረኪበ ሲሳይ እምገራህተ ማህረስ ወውሂብ ለምንዱባን። ወተገብሮ ውስተ ካልኣን ኣምጣነ ሃብታት ይረብህ ከመ ያስተቄፅል ዓለማዊ ህይወት” (MS G, f. 80r).

Abba Estifanos taught that labor is necessary for producing food in agricultural fields, assisting the disabled, and engaging in other economic activities to sustain secular life.

ወምህሮሙ ለኣርዳኢሁ ከመ ይስርዑ ክፍለ ሰዓቶሙ እምነ መዓልት ለግብረ ማህረስ ከመ ይሴሰዩ በግብረ እደዊሆሙ ወከመ ይሲጡ እክሎሙ ለቅሩባን መካናት እምነ ነቢር በስኢል።” (MS G, f. 36v).

Abba Estifanos instructed his students to dedicate their daytime hours to agricultural activities as a means of self-support. He encouraged them to distribute their produce to the nearby village, promoting self-sufficiency over a life of begging.

“ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ይቤ ሰብእ ሃለዎ ይትሉ ዘሃለየ በህሊናሁ ወይትጋደል እስከ ይረክብ ዘሃለየ” (MS G, f. 50).

Abba Estifanos asserted that an individual should heed their own mind and persist in their struggle until they achieve their goal.

“ወወጠነ ግብረ ተሃድሶ እምውስተ ገዳም ዘይትቀነይ ቦቱ። ውእቱ ኣዘዘ ኣርዳኢሁ ከመ ይትገበሩ ግብረ ማህረስ ወይርድኡ ለዘኢይትከሃሎሙ ይትገበሩ።” (MS G, f. 38v).

Abba Estifanos initiated his reforms within the monastery where he was serving. He first instructed his followers to participate in agricultural activities and to provide support for those who were unable to work for themselves.

“ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ኣቀመ ሰባክያን ውስተ ኵሉ በሓውርት ከመ ይሃቡ ለኵሉ መፃሕፍቲሁ ወመፃሕፍተ ቅዱስ መፅሓፍ። እንዘ ይዌጥን ዘዚኣሁ ሃዲስ ትምህርት ሰሓበ አርድእተ ዘተሰምዩ ደቂቀ እስጢፋኖስ ዘኊልቆሙ ይዌስክ እምእለት ዕለተ።” (MS G, f. 44v).

Abba Estifanos established a network of evangelists for the purpose of distributing his literature and Bible manuscripts as part of their missionary work. His innovative doctrine initially attracted a group of followers, known as Stephanites or Deqiqa Estifanos, which translates to “students or followers of Estifanos.”

“ወኣዘዞሙ ለኣርዳኢሁ ከመ ይምሃሩ ለህዝብ መፃሕፍት ቅዱሳት ከመ ይዌልጡ ህይወቶሙ በሰሪዐ ሰዓት ለግብረ ማህረስ ለተሴስዮ ዘእንበለ ፀርዓት ወኢያማስኑ ጊዜሆሙ በገቢር ለፅድቅ” (MS G, f. 46r).

Abba Estifanos instructed his followers to educate society about the Holy Scripture, with the aim of transforming their lifestyle. He emphasized the importance of dedicating time to agricultural activities for food security, rather than spending their time solely on pursuits of salvation.

“በሃዊር እምነ መካነ ውስተ መካን ውእቱ ኣዘዞሙ ለሕዝብ ከመ ይስርዑ ክፍለ ሰዓቶሙ ለግብረ ማህረስ ወበዘተርፈ ሰዓት ይርድኡ ምንዱባን ወኣረጋውያን።” (MS G, f. 49r).

As he traveled from one location to another, Abba Estifanos advised people to dedicate a portion of their time to agricultural activities. He further suggested that they should use their remaining time to assist the disabled and elderly.

”ኣኮኑ ዘሰበከ ወመሃረ ዘእንቲኣሁ ሃዲሳት ሃሳባት ኣላ ሰርዐ ከመ መነኮሳት ይትልዉ ዘንተ ትምህርተ ቅድመ ወእምዝ ይትወሃብ ውስተ ኵሉ ህዝብ” (MS G, f. 50r).

Not only did he preach and teach his innovative ideas, he also proclaimed a doctrine that was to be adhered to initially by monks, and subsequently by the general public.

“ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ወደቂቁ ተዓገሱ ኵሎ ቅስፈታተ ዘእንበለ ፍርሃት። እምኣመ ይትፈታህ እሞቅህ ይዌስክ ኣስተምህሮ ብዙሃ ኣህዛበ ወእምድህረ ፈፀመ ምሂረ ውእቱ ኣቀመ ሕገ ወስርዓተ ውስተ ገዳማተ ደቂቀ እስጢፋኖስ”። (MS G, f. 51v).

Abba Estifanos withstood all forms of persecution alongside his followers, never wavering in his fervor. Each time he was released from prison, he resumed his mission of educating numerous individuals. Ultimately, he established an administrative structure within the monasteries of the Stephanites.

“ደቀ እስጢፋኖስ ይቤ ኢታቁም ኣሪገ ውስተ ደብር እስከ ትበፅህ ውስተ ተፍፃሜታ” (MS G, f. 53v).

Abba Estifanos proclaimed, “Do not cease to climb the mountain until you reach its peak.”

Below is an executive summary on the nature and relevance of the heritage knowledge related to labor ethics from the Gaddla Ahaw Ge’ez manuscript:

From his actions, it is clear that Abba Estifanos was concerned with the contemporary understanding of the nature of labor. Labor was commonly perceived as a punishment for humanity, originating from the disobedience of the first human couple in the Garden of Eden. This disobedience led to God’s decree that Adam and Eve would eat their food “by the sweat of their brow” until they died. From then on, labor was also viewed as a degrading and humiliating experience that humanity had to endure on earth as a consequence of its sin. In Abba Estifanos’ view, this attitude towards work led humans to see themselves as inferior creatures whose purpose on earth was to erase the sin they inherited from Adam and Eve. This assumption, in turn, fostered a negative attitude towards the self and the true nature of labor. People began to believe that the only way to rid themselves of human sin and achieve salvation was to serve God and His Church. As a result, the work of the church was considered superior to other forms of secular work. This concept of labor also had a negative impact on the concept of wealth. In relation to this notion there is a proverb that says, “It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter Heaven.”

Contrary to the traditional scripture, Abba Estifanos interpreted the Biblical notion of work, specifically the idea of eating food “by the sweat of one’s brow,” as an affirmative attitude towards labor. In his doctrinal teachings, Abba Estifanos suggested that humans could fulfill God’s will and attain salvation by working diligently to sustain life on earth. Abba Estifanos educated people about the connection between the “self,” God, and the Holy Spirit. He stated, “God is with you while the Holy Spirit is within you,” thus implying that the “self” (the human body) is the Temple of the Holy Spirit. He believed that allowing the body to suffer was akin to letting the Temple of the Holy Spirit deteriorate. In this context, Abba Estifanos proposed that people could serve and glorify God through serving the “self” (the body). He introduced the concept of work in which spiritual work, referring to love and faithfulness, does not require much time as it is the work of the spirit. On the other hand, sustaining the “self” on earth refers to labor that requires a significant amount of human time to earn a living. Abba Estifanos argued that secular work to make a living on earth does not prevent people from being faithful Christians. He further contended that secular work helps the Temple that houses the Holy Spirit to survive sustainably and promotes the spiritual work of Christian followers.

In fact, this new concept of work extends beyond the simple explanation of the value of work to sustain the body as a Temple that harbors the Holy Spirit. Abba Estifanos stated that labor is not an end in itself and not solely for material gain. Instead, it is for human development, enabling individuals to exercise their potential on earth as God’s creatures. Therefore, Abba Estifanos initiated a paradigm shift in his attitude towards labor. He suggested that labor should be viewed in terms of reasonable faith. From this perspective, work is a means to empower people to live a meaningful life, fostering peaceful coexistence with neighbors and the surrounding environment. If people develop a reasonable faith in labor, they can move away from greed and corruption, thus achieving salvation in love and peace.

Abba Estifanos’ primary aim was to liberate society from the oppressive tools of the time. As a Christian, he understood that people sought salvation through demonstrating loyalty and devoting much of their time to church services and providing free services to their masters. To liberate them, he planned to promote their self-awareness about the self and God. By building the authority of their mind, he planned to teach people how they could obtain salvation and live a better life on earth. To accomplish all his reforms, Abba Estifanos began teaching the true nature of God, the Bible, and the path to salvation. He sought to achieve this goal by organizing his teachings into a doctrine and forming his followers into a sect. He then established a network through his followers across wider areas in Tigray and other parts of the country. Using these networks, he disseminated his reformation ideas. Recognizing the power of information in promoting his doctrines across a wide range of areas, he compiled his teachings into a book and established various networks to disseminate his teachings, thereby changing societal attitudes towards the self and beyond. Abba Estifanos and his growing number of followers devised a plan to evangelize the entire region of Tigray by setting up nine major and 15 subordinate associations. Within these associations, he established a team under one leader in each area. The team members dedicated themselves to studying the Holy Scriptures and first changing their own lifestyles, then the lifestyle of the community. The objective of another team was to engage every healthy member in some form of agricultural work and to assist those unable to work within society. Consequently, such experiences would be shared with the local community, encouraging them to support themselves through agricultural activities instead of remaining idle. Lastly, he traveled from place to place to persuade fellow monks to join him in his reforms.

Indeed, from our content analysis and description, it is clear that Abba Estifanos placed a strong emphasis on self-sufficiency, particularly through agriculture, and on the principle of aiding those who are unable to support themselves. This approach could indeed have numerous benefits. It could ensure food security within the community, promote a robust work ethic, and foster a sense of solidarity and mutual support among its members. His teachings seem to have had a profound impact on the community, shaping their attitudes towards work, self-sustainability, and mutual support. If we use them properly for the present situation, Abba Estifanos’ teachings can have a significant impact on societal attitude towards the secular value of labor and work ethics, self-sustainability and mutual support.

5.3 Understanding Secular Time in Bahire Hasab Ge’ez Manuscripts: Extraction of Heritage Knowledge from Bahire Hasab/Abushakir Ge’ez Parchment Manuscript

As we highlighted in previous sections, “Bahire Hasab” suggests that the manuscript contains “thoughts” and “calculations” as deep and vast as an ocean. Upon delving deeper into it, one discovers that the manuscript is a repository for a variety of fields such as philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, history, law, and the genealogy of royal families. By analyzing its content, we have identified four distinguishing features of the Bahire Hasab Ge’ez manuscript (this analysis result is from pages 4 to 36 in the English translated version or MS G1, ff. 4v–36v in the original Abushakir manuscripts):

1. It provides a comprehensive description of the movement of the stars, sun, and moon, and the calculations based on the apparent movement of the sun and the moon.

2. It establishes an intriguing link between the four evangelists (i.e., Matthew, Luke, John, and Mark) and the four seasons of Ethiopia (summer, autumn, winter, and spring).

3. It presents a description of the absolute and relative measurements of time units (calendar) that are crucial to determine days, weeks, months, and years.

4. It contains rich content that brings together the religious and civil calendar.

Indeed, while the mathematical calculation of calendars in the solar or lunar calendar is an important aspect, it falls outside the scope of this current study. Our focus is on the analysis of the concept of time and its secular value as reflected in this manuscript. We have indicated the “page” number where these concepts can be found in both the translated English version and the original Ge’ez manuscript. This approach allows us to delve into the nuances of time perception and its implications in a historical and cultural context.

5.4 Concept and the Secular Value of Time as Reflected in Abushakir Ge’ez Manuscript