Fighting the COVID-19 pandemic with words: an investigation of pragmatic presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans

3.3.1 Classification of pragmatic presuppositions

To classify the pragmatic presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans, this study proposes a scheme that is devised with reference to Chen (1998), Wei (2003), Ji (2011), Zeng (2015) and Li (2016). Chen (1998) suggests that pragmatic presuppositions in advertisements can be divided into factive presupposition, belief presupposition, stative presupposition and behavioral presupposition. Wei (2003) expands Chen’s classification of pragmatic presuppositions by adding two more sub-categories, namely cultural presupposition and pun presupposition. Ji (2011) divides pragmatic presuppositions into six types, namely factive presupposition, cultural presupposition, stative presupposition, behavioral presupposition, belief presupposition, and species presupposition. Zeng (2015) proposes a fivefold division of pragmatic presuppositions in advertisements, which includes belief, stative, behavioral, emotional, and effect presuppositions. Li (2016) also divides pragmatic presuppositions in advertisements into five sub-categories, namely target, belief, stative, behavioral, and knowledge presuppositions.

Above all, it must be pointed out that Ji (2011) classifies the pragmatic presuppositions without specifying the fields they can be applied to, while the classifications made by Chen (1998), Wei (2003), Zeng (2015) and Li (2016) are all focused on advertisements. The similarities and differences between these studies suggest that it is possible to classify pragmatic presuppositions according to the field of study and the purpose of study. Since both advertisements and slogans are an important means of publicity (Gong 2007), this study argues that it is possible to classify the pragmatic presuppositions in slogans with reference to those in advertisements. Of these five studies, belief, stative and behavioral presuppositions are mentioned five times, while factive presuppositions three times and cultural presuppositions twice. Pun, emotional, effect, target, and knowledge presuppositions are mentioned once, respectively. This study argues that pragmatic presuppositions suggested by more than one previous study have a higher degree of acceptance than those suggested only once. Therefore, it keeps belief, stative, behavioral, factive and cultural presuppositions as workable types. This study also argues that of the presuppositions that are mentioned only once, most of them are less acceptable. For example, the effect presupposition proposed by Zeng (2015) and the target category by Li (2016) can be both subcategorized into the stative presuppositions. The pun presuppositions category proposed by Wei (2003) is too narrow in that it is a rhetorical device, which manipulates words be with similar or identical sounds but with different meanings. Narrowness can also found in the species presupposition mentioned by Ji (2011) in that it only deals with basic biological categories such as human beings, animals, plants or objects. In contrast, the knowledge presupposition suggested by Li (2016) is so broad that it can serve as a cover term for pragmatic presuppositions. The only inclusion of a pragmatic presupposition that is mentioned only once is the emotional presupposition suggested by Zeng (2015). Given that ethos, which is an important part of Aristotle’s rhetorical theory, is investigated by Xiao et al. (2020) in their study of Chinese anti-pandemic slogans, this study decided to follow Zeng’s (2015) suit to keep the emotional presupposition as one independent type of pragmatic presuppositions. Eventually, this study divides pragmatic presuppositions into six types, namely factive presupposition, belief presupposition, stative presupposition, behavioral presupposition, emotional presupposition, and cultural presupposition.

3.3.2 Evaluation of pragmatic presuppositions

When evaluating the functions of pragmatic presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans, this study argues that it is more revealing to expand Han’s (2008) three-way classification of the slogan functions, which are goal-orienting, educating, and stimulating. To be specific, it divides the goal-orienting function into persuading people to act properly and admonishing people against wrong doings. The educating function and the stimulating function suggested by Han (2021) are also elaborated, respectively, to be spreading scientific knowledge and bolstering people’s confidence.

When evaluating the misuse of pragmatic presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans, this study takes a comprehensive perspective. It not only takes linguistic politeness into consideration, but also social civility.

3.3.3 Statistic software

This study uses SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions) (Version 26) to perform any statistic test required.

4.1.1 Sample analysis of behavioral presuppositions

Behavioral presupposition refers to the actions that people used to take or would take (Chen 1998; Ji 2011; Li 2016; Wei 2003; Zeng 2015). It often involves the replacement of previous actions by future actions. Depending on the purpose of communication, behavioral presupposition may be positive or negative.

This slogan (see Figure 1) is based on the behavioral presupposition that people should avoid social gatherings and should wear masks during the pandemic. It states clearly what people should not do and what they should do. Given the easy spread of the virus, it is not safe for people to go to places where there are many people. To prevent people from being infected with the virus, it is necessary for them to wear masks when they leave home for public places.

Figure 1:

An example of behavioral presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans.

This slogan builds on the behavioral presupposition that people should handle rumors responsibly. In the fight against the pandemic, an objective, scientific evaluation of the situation is of uttermost importance. It is not a secret that people, who are under pressure, tend to be keen to know of the latest development of the pandemic or to be eager to spread news about it. However, a very small percentage of Internet users maliciously fabricate, spread and disseminate rumors on the Internet with the ill intention of misleading the public, provoking public panic and undermining social stability. This slogan specifies the right actions for people to take when they are confronted with rumors about the pandemic.

4.1.2 Sample analysis of factive presuppositions

Factive presupposition refers to the objective fact or existence known by all the participants of the communication activity (Chen 1998; Ji 2011; Wei 2003). Facts speak for themselves. The best way to persuade people is to show them the facts. The use of factive presuppositions can increase the credibility of the argument that is being proposed.

This slogan (see Figure 2) is based on the medical fact that wearing masks can prevent the spread of respiratory secretions during the pandemic. As a respiratory disease, the virus of COVID-19 exists in the saliva and nasal mucus a person produces and can be spread in the air. Under such circumstances, masks can act as shields, which can prevent the virus in the air from getting into one’s mouth and then lungs. This medical fact is so solid and so well-known that no one can question the credibility of it. Therefore, it can reinforce the importance of wearing masks during the pandemic.

Figure 2:

An example of factive presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans.

This slogan is based on the social fact that people’s life in the pandemic is protected by the medical workers. Without the expertise and contribution of the doctors and nurses, people will not be able to enjoy their heath or savor the beauty of life. This slogan is aimed at asking people to be thankful for the work of medical staff. It is the medical staffs who battle the virus at the forefront, providing a safe shelter for people to live. This is a social fact that needs to be acknowledged by the general public. Only with this acknowledgement can the society develop in a healthy way, not only materially, but also spiritually.

4.1.3 Sample analysis of stative presuppositions

Stative presupposition refers to the change of state (Chen 1998; Ji 2011; Li 2016; Wei 2003; Zeng 2015). According to Chen (1998), change of state can be either positive or negative. Positive changes are effected to attract or lure people, while bad changes are produced to discourage or scare people.

This slogan (see Figure 3) rests on the stative presupposition that when people reinforce their immunity, they will be less susceptible to the COVID-19 virus. To cope with the COVID-19 pandemic, people can take different measures, such as wearing masks, staying at home and doing exercises. Of them, doing exercises can build up their physique and improve their immunity. When people’s immunity is improved, they will not be easily susceptible to the COVID-19 virus, which is found to affect the aging population more than it does the young.

Figure 3:

An example of stative presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans.

This slogan is based on the stative presupposition that there are huge benefits of staying at home during the pandemic. Given the danger of the COVID-19 virus, people can ensure their safety by avoiding going out during the pandemic. Health is of primary importance. When people’s health is ensured, they may live a long life.

4.1.4 Sample analysis of belief presuppositions

Belief presupposition refers to the viewpoints or convictions held by all the participants of the communication activity (Chen 1998; Ji 2011; Li 2016; Wei 2003; Zeng 2015). Beliefs are people’s opinions about issues or the state of people’s mind. Not only do beliefs influence people’s views and attitudes about issues, but also people’s will and action. The use of belief presuppositions in anti-pandemic slogans is to reinforce particular beliefs and views of the general public so that they can be mentally somber and strong.

This slogan (see Figure 4) is based on the belief presupposition that people should put things in perspective during the pandemic. First, it is the belief in life, which is the first and most important aspect in the fight against the pandemic. Nothing is more precious than life, which echoes the Chinese government’s policy of “people first and life first”. Second, the outbreak of the pandemic is an order to mobilize people regardless of their socio-economic position in China to participate in the fight against it. It is a matter of great urgency as the fight against the pandemic is like a war, which may decide the future and destiny of the entire country. Third, prevention of the pandemic is a great responsibility for everybody. Given that the pandemic is a threat to public health, everyone has an obligation to prevent the virus from spreading.

Figure 4:

An example of belief presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans.

This slogan builds on the belief presupposition that people can contribute to the virus prevention and control by staying at home. As an infectious disease, the COVID-19 pandemic easily spread among people. A simple and effective way to control the spread of the disease is to ask people to remain at home and not go out for social gatherings. At the beginning of the outbreak of the pandemic, many people were unaware of the danger of social gatherings. Some of them were not willing to stay at home or to reduce social contacts. It was necessary to make them realize the importance of lockdown and quarantine. For individuals, who were not medical workers or public service providers, the best way for them to contribute was to stay at home and ensure their own safety.

4.1.5 Sample analysis of cultural presuppositions

Cultural presuppositions are tenets and ideas that are agreed upon by people in a given society but exist in the form of underlying assumptions (Ji 2011; Nida and Reyburn 1981; Wei 2003). This latent form of presuppositions is known, accepted and shared by groups of people living in the same society.

This slogan (see Figure 5) is based on the Chinese cultural presupposition that the Hongmen Banquet is an invitation with an ill intention. The Hongmen Banquet was held by Xiang Yu, as the leader of one army, to overthrow the rule of the Qin Dynasty and to assassinate his rival Liu Bang, who, the leader of another army, had the potential to overthrow Xiang Yu. Ever since then, the Hongmen Banquet has become a household term to refer to a banquet with an ill intention. During the COVID-19 pandemic, it was dangerous for people to gather to have a large meal as a social gathering may increase the risk of people becoming infected with the virus or spreading it. Therefore, governments at all levels strongly advised people not to gather for meals. The use of the Hongmen Banquet clearly highlights the hazard of inviting friends and relatives to meals, thus dissuading people from doing so.

Figure 5:

An example of cultural presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans.

This slogan is based on the Chinese cultural presupposition that immortals are omnipotent or invincible. In the face of a highly contagious disease like the COVID-19 virus, however, even the immortals may become vulnerable and so they must wear masks to be protected from the COVID-19 virus. By taking the immortals as an example, this slogan reinforces the idea that wearing tasks is a necessary preventative measure to be taken during the pandemic.

4.1.6 Sample analysis of emotional presuppositions

Emotional presupposition refers to the existence of a close or intimate relationship between the speaker and the listener (Zeng 2015). Emotional presupposition is based on the premise that people are emotionally interwoven with their family and friends. They are ready to make personal sacrifices for the benefits of their loved ones.

This slogan (see Figure 6) is based on the emotional presupposition that people are ready to give up personal pleasures for the sake of their loved ones. It asks people not to gather for meals during the pandemic so as to reduce the risk of being infected with the virus or spreading it. Only when everyone in the family is ensured of a good health can the entire family flourish, which will strengthen the family ties instead of weakening them. This slogan points out the positive benefits of people’s correct behaviors from the perspective of their loved ones.

Figure 6:

An example of emotional presuppositions in Chinese anti-pandemic slogans.

This slogan builds on the emotional presupposition that a person travelling or residing in a place far away from home is always valued by his or her fellow towns-men. This slogan establishes an immediate rapport between a returning person and his or her hometown by calling him or her “sweetheart”. For a person who stays away from his or her hometown throughout the year and only returns at the time of the Spring Festival, it is very heart-warming to be called the sweetheart. When the returning person is emotionally connected with his or her hometown, he or she would not wish to cause any harm to their hometown. They may do their part to contribute to the hometown. Therefore, they are likely to be willing to report where they come from upon arrival in the hometown.

4.2.1 Persuading people to act properly

Some Chinese anti-pandemic slogans are used to guide people to act properly during the pandemic. Acting properly is essential for the pandemic prevention and control, which may reduce the risk of virus spread and infection. Acting properly is not only important in the short term, but also important in the long term. Proper actions involve many specific acts in work and life.

This slogan rests on the behavioral presupposition that an early approach is necessary for the proper handling of the virus. As the virus is highly infectious, any procrastination regarding the treatment may lead to unpredictable consequences. Therefore, it is necessary for people to stay alert and act promptly when an infection is detected.

This slogan is based on the behavioral presupposition that it is necessary for people to get vaccinated. There are different ways of virus prevention and control. Vaccination is one of them in that it can increase people’s immunity to the virus. However, some people are reluctant to get vaccinated for fear of side effects. Therefore, it is necessary to urge these people to take the vaccination.

4.2.2 Spreading scientific knowledge

Some Chinese anti-pandemic slogans are used to spread scientific knowledge about the prevention and control of the COVID-19 pandemic. Not long after the outbreak of the pandemic in late January, 2020, there occurred a great deal of misunderstandings and rumors about the virus, causing panic among many people. Under such circumstances, it was very important to help people to understand the virus, which is a fundamental step in the fight against the virus. Therefore, some Chinese anti-pandemic slogans were created to educate the public. They act as a social teacher, imparting the correct knowledge to the Chinese people.

This slogan is an example of the factive presupposition concerning the treatment of the COVID-19 virus. It states explicitly that so far no effective cure for this virus has been invented and it is baseless to believe that tobacco and alcohol are capable of killing the virus. This slogan aims at helping people to acquire a scientific understanding of the treatment of this disease.

This slogan is an example of the factive presupposition that scientific personal protection measures must be taken during the pandemic. It tells individual people to wear masks, wash their hands often and ventilate their working and living spaces regularly. This slogan educates the general public about how to protect themselves from the attack of the virus individually.

4.2.3 Warning people against wrongdoings

Some Chinese anti-pandemic slogans are used to admonish people not to act inappropriately by amplifying the severe consequences of wrongdoings. Given the danger of the COVID-19 virus, an act of misbehavior may lead to severe consequences. Therefore, people are expected to behave properly when they are made aware of how severe the consequences may be if they do not.

This slogan builds on the stative presupposition that failure to wear masks may incur severe consequences. It states clearly that not wearing masks may bring an immediate end to one’s life in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. By pointing out the grave consequences of an inappropriate action such as the failure to wear masks, this slogan can persuade people to develop the habit of wearing them.

This slogan makes use of the stative presupposition that hiding one’s return from the pandemic-savaged area may cause great harm to the people in the surrounding area. As the COVID-19 virus is a highly contagious disease, anyone who returns for the Spring Festival from a virus-hit area may be a virus carrier. Therefore, it is vital for them to honestly report their arrival to the local authority, who may take them to a designated place for quarantine. By specifying the possible harms of their wrongdoing, this slogan can convince people against wrongdoing.

4.2.4 Bolstering people’s confidence

Some Chinese anti-pandemic slogans are used to cheer people up during the rampancy of the virus. In the early stage of Wuhan’s struggle against the virus, a great number of deaths were reported daily. The rising death toll caused a rapid panic among the general public, who became agitated and pessimistic. However, people’s confidence in the eventual victory in the fight against the virus was something that could not afford to be lost. Under such circumstances, slogans were used to provide spiritual support for people, assuring them that the virus would be brought under control and life would return to normal in the future.

This slogan is an example of the emotional presupposition that all the Chinese people have concerns for their compatriots and motherland. Wuhan, the capital city of Hubei Province, China, was the place where the COVID-19 pandemic first broke out in this country. It was almost devastated by the mounting number of infections and deaths in the first two months of 2020. Under the leadership of the Chinese central government, it was not long before the whole country was mobilized to fight against the pandemic together. People from different walks of life across the country not only participated in the prevention and control of the virus, but also contributed in helping Wuhan, which was the most severely affected city at that time. Go China, Go Hubei and Go Wuhan reflected the common desire of the Chinese people who were united as one to fight against the pandemic. This slogan greatly boosted the confidence of residents in Wuhan and citizens in China to win the battle against the pandemic.

This slogan is based on the factive presupposition that the four seasons of nature take turns to arrive. When the COVID-19 pandemic broke out in Wuhan in late December 2019, the city was locked down immediately. As increasing infections and deaths were reported every passing day, the Spring Festival of 2020 was simply ruined by the pandemic. At that time, people were not only feeling the coldness of the winter temperature, but also the severe threat of the virus. Living in cold and fear, people’s confidence waivered. By referring to a fact of nature that after winter comes spring, this slogan injected a great deal of confidence into people that the contagious pandemic would be controlled and mankind would survive in the end.