Comparative analysis of RF semi-quantum key distribution (QKD) under noisy RF channels
-
Venkatachalam Revathi
Abstract
This paper presents a comparative investigation of two quantum communication architectures – standard quantum key distribution (QKD) and semi-quantum key distribution (SQKD) – operating over noisy RF channels and enhanced with quantum phase estimation (QPE) feedback for phase noise mitigation. In QKD, both communicating parties are fully quantum-capable, while in SQKD, one party is restricted to limited classical-level quantum operations. The study evaluates performance under realistic noise models incorporating depolarizing noise, thermal relaxation, and Gaussian-distributed phase noise, examining the impact of QPE pilot configurations on phase tracking, residual error, and error rates. Simulation results reveal that while QPE feedback significantly improves robustness in both architectures, the SQKD configuration exhibits slower convergence, higher residual errors, and more variable key error rates due to the classical party’s limited corrective capabilities. These findings highlight the trade-offs between hardware complexity and performance in quantum-secured RF communication systems.
-
Research ethics: Not applicable.
-
Informed consent: Not applicable.
-
Author contributions: The authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
-
Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: Not applicable.
-
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
-
Research funding: Not applicable.
-
Data availability: Not applicable.
References
1. Sharma, P, Gupta, V, Sood, SK. Evolution of quantum cryptography in response to the computational power of quantum computers: an archival view. Arch Comput Methods Eng 2024;31:4533–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-024-10122-6.Suche in Google Scholar
2. Zhou, NR, Liao, Q, Zou, XF. Multi-party semi-quantum key agreement protocol based on the four-qubit cluster states. Int J Theor Phys 2022;61:114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10773-022-05102-0.Suche in Google Scholar
3. Boyer, M, Kenigsberg, D, Mor, T. Quantum key distribution with classical Bob. Phys Rev Lett 2007;99:140501. https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.99.140501.Suche in Google Scholar
4. Kumar, A, Dadheech, P, Singh, V, Poonia, RC, Raja, L. An improved quantum key distribution protocol for verification. J Discrete Math Sci Cryptogr 2019;22:491–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720529.2019.1637153.Suche in Google Scholar
5. Bozzio, M, Vyvlecka, M, Cosacchi, M, Nawrath, C, Seidelmann, T, Loredo, JC, et al.. Enhancing quantum cryptography with quantum dot single-photon sources. npj Quantum Inf 2022;8:104. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41534-022-00626-z.Suche in Google Scholar
6. van Leent, T, Bock, M, Garthoff, R, Redeker, K, Zhang, W, Bauer, T, et al.. Long-distance distribution of atom-photon entanglement at telecom wavelength. Phys Rev Lett 2020;124:010510. https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.124.010510.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
7. Kawachi, A, Koshiba, T. Quantum computational cryptography. In: Imai, H, Hayashi, M, editors. Quantum computation and information. Topics in Applied Physics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2006, vol 102.Suche in Google Scholar
8. Valivarthi, R, Etcheverry, S, Aldama, J, Zwiehoff, F, Pruneri, V. Plug-and-play continuous-variable quantum key distribution for metropolitan networks. Opt Express 2020;28:14547–59. https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.391491.Suche in Google Scholar
9. Xu, J, Ma, X, Liu, J, Zhang, C, Li, H, Zhou, X, et al.. Automatically identifying imperfections and attacks in practical quantum key distribution systems via machine learning. Sci China Inf Sci 2024;67:202501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11432-023-3988-x.Suche in Google Scholar
10. Tang, Y-L, Yin, HL, Ma, X, Fung, CHF, Liu, Y, Yong, HL, et al.. Source attack of decoy-state quantum key distribution using phase information. Phys Rev A 2013;88:022308. https://doi.org/10.1103/physreva.88.022308.Suche in Google Scholar
11. Ding, X, He, Y, Duan, ZC, Gregersen, N, Chen, MC, Unsleber, S, et al.. On-demand single photons with high extraction efficiency and near-unity indistinguishability from a resonantly driven quantum dot in a micropillar. Phys Rev Lett 2016;116:020401. https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.116.020401.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
12. He, Y-M, Wang, H, Wang, C, Chen, MC, Ding, X, Qin, J, et al.. Coherently driving a single quantum two-level system with dichromatic laser pulses. Nat Phys 2019;15:941–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41567-019-0585-6.Suche in Google Scholar
13. Ng, NHY, Joshi, SK, Chen Ming, C, Kurtsiefer, C, Wehner, S. Experimental implementation of bit commitment in the noisy-storage model. Nat Commun 2012;3:1326. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2268.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed
© 2026 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
