A systematic review of the use of WeChat in teaching Chinese as a foreign language

2.1 Keywords and inclusion criteria

To locate pertinent journal articles, a keyword search was performed. This entailed exploring online databases of academic publications with the following keywords: “WeChat Chinese language”, “WeChat Mandarin”, “WeChat Hanyu” and “WeChat Putonghua”. These keywords were selected due to their direct relevance to TCFL, which constitutes the central focus of this study. The search results yielded articles that included the specified keywords in their titles, abstracts or full texts. This approach provided valuable insights into the primary themes of the study, which ensured a refined and targeted investigation.

One of the key inclusion criteria was that the journal articles should be published in English. This criterion aimed to broaden the search by transcending geographical and linguistic boundaries, given the current global academic prominence of English. It also aimed to minimise the challenges associated with translating, understanding and analysing non-English publications. This decision was also shaped by practical considerations, including limited access to Chinese articles in the author’s university library and personal resources.

The present study focused exclusively on empirical journal articles due to their capacity to provide comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of a subject. The author conducted a thorough search of the Scopus and Web of Science databases, combining their strengths to increase the scope and depth of the literature search. This approach was in keeping with the research objectives and enriched the study’s findings by ensuring a comprehensive identification of relevant articles. In summary, the following inclusion criteria were used to screen the articles identified through the search:

1. Journal articles

2. Investigations of WeChat use for TCFL

3. Reports of empirical data

4. English publications

2.2 Identification of journal articles

The timeframe for the literature search spanned from the initial launch of WeChat as a social media tool in 2011 to February 2023. The latter date was when data collection for this study was completed; thus, it serves as the most recent point of reference for this investigation. The journal articles were identified in three stages. In Stage 1, Scopus provided high-quality peer-reviewed articles. Table 1 shows the different search phases of this stage and their results.

– In the first phase of Stage 1, the keyword “WeChat Chinese” produced 831 results. However, when it became apparent that the first 10 articles on this list were irrelevant, the author reasonably assumed that a significant portion of the sample would be unrelated to TCFL. As a result, the second phase of Stage 1 was carried out with the keywords “WeChat Chinese language”, “WeChat Mandarin”, “WeChat Hanyu” and “WeChat Putonghua”. A total of 112 results were found in the second phase, including 94 with the keyword “WeChat Chinese language” and 18 with “WeChat Mandarin”. However, no journal articles were identified using “WeChat Hanyu” and “WeChat Putonghua”.

– Moving to the third phase of Stage 1, unrelated articles were removed from the two lists above. The selection process was mainly based on the topics and abstracts of the articles identified in the second phase. Ten articles obtained with the keyword “WeChat Chinese language” were kept, while only one article was kept from the list based on “WeChat Mandarin”. The fourth phase of this stage involved checking for any possible duplicates in the two lists. The article located with the keyword “WeChat Mandarin” appeared on the “WeChat Chinese language” list. Therefore, in the end, only 10 articles remained for further analysis.

In Stage 2, the search was conducted using the Web of Science database. It consisted of four phases, as outlined in Table 2. In Phase 1, all four keywords were employed. This search yielded 99 results. Specifically, 84 results were generated with the keyword “WeChat Chinese language”, while 11 were identified with “WeChat Mandarin”. Only four results were found with “WeChat Hanyu”, and no results were located with “WeChat Putonghua”. The second phase involved removing non-relevant articles. After reviewing the topics and abstracts, nine relevant articles were kept for further consideration from the list obtained with the keyword “WeChat Chinese language”, while one was chosen from the “WeChat Mandarin” list. Phase 3 (S2) entailed checking for any potential duplicates. The article in the “WeChat Mandarin” list also appeared on the other list. As a result, only the nine articles from the list identified with the keyword “WeChat Chinese language” were retained for further analysis.

As illustrated in Table 3, the first phase of Stage 3 involved thoroughly checking for duplicates in the lists generated during Stages 1 and 2. Seven articles appeared in both stages. However, three articles were retrieved only in Stage 1, which used the Scopus database, while two articles were found only in Stage 2, which employed the Web of Science database. As a result, 12 journal articles were identified in total.

In Phase 2 of Stage 3, a backward citation search was conducted to identify all cited references in the individual articles (Brown University Library, 2021). This approach ensured the inclusion of the widest possible range of sources. During this phase, one additional relevant article was discovered, which brought the total number of articles for the final phase of analysis to 13. A concise summary of the characteristics of these 13 journal articles is provided in the Appendix.

2.3 Data coding and analysis

The process of data coding and analysis comprised two stages – a preliminary one and a final one. In Stage 1, two articles were selected from the sample to verify the reliability and validity of the coding scheme. In Stage 2, the remaining 11 articles underwent coding and analysis. The final dataset for presentation and discussion was derived from these 13 articles. The data-coding and analysis process enabled the identification of patterns and relationships among the articles through thematic categorisation, which led to a conceptual understanding of the issues. Table 4 provides an overview of the two stages in question, and it outlines the activities conducted and the number of articles included at each stage.

Microsoft Excel 2016 was used to store and generate the data. As indicated in Table 5, the data was organised into four main categories: research context, research methodologies, benefits and challenges, and implications and areas for future research. Each of these four categories included several sub-categories.

The first category – research context – was divided into two sub-categories: publication status, including year of publication and publishing journal, and research participants, which focused on the individuals involved in the reviewed studies. The second category – research methodologies – was also divided into two sub-categories: the methods used in the reviewed articles and data collection tools, which included the specific tools or instruments used to collect the data in the reviewed studies. The third category – benefits and challenges – was organised into four sub-categories: language learning, social interactions, learner agency and learner motivation. The fourth category – implications – was broken down into two sub-categories: technological integration and social contexts.

Overall, the main categories and their sub-categories demonstrate how the data was organised to align meaningfully with the study’s research questions. This allowed the author to examine the relationships between the categories, view the data as a whole and develop a conceptual understanding of the issues (Hennink et al., 2011, p. 245).

3.1 Publication status

The initial step to understand the academic significance and breadth of the reviewed articles was an examination of their publication status. As shown in Figure 1, the annual publication status of the 13 articles showed fluctuations. In 2016 and 2017, two articles were published. The number increased to five in 2018 but dropped to zero in 2019. In 2020, only one article was published, followed by another one in 2021. In 2022, the number of published articles increased to two. Overall, then, there were noticeable variations in the number of articles published each year, with a relatively significant increase in 2018.

Figure 1:

The annual publication of the 13 reviewed articles.

Figure 2 provides an overview of the distribution of the 13 reviewed articles according to their publishing journals. Computer Assisted Language Learning had the highest percentage, accounting for approximately 30 % of the sample. The Journal of Technology and Chinese Language Teaching published 22 % of the articles. Hence, these two journals issued more than half of the articles on the use of WeChat for TCFL as identified in this review. The remaining journals published one article each, and they accounted for approximately 8 % of the sample.

Figure 2:

Publishers and their associated publications.

Overall, the publication landscape suggested that interest in the use of WeChat for TCFL was not limited to a single publisher. Rather, this topic was of interest to a broad range of audiences, from specialised journals focusing on Chinese language education to more general publications dealing with computer-assisted language learning or second and foreign language education. Still, the diversity of publishing journals may limit the readership of these articles to certain fields and hinder their visibility and impact outside of those fields.

3.2 Participants involved

Exploring the characteristics of the participants of the studies discussed in the reviewed articles provided insights into the multifaceted and dynamic engagement of this literature with the phenomenon under consideration. Participant numbers varied widely, from as few as two university-level Chinese language learners (Jin, 2018) to as many as 81 beginner-level students of Chinese (Tong et al., 2022), as shown in Figure 3. Participants came from different linguistic backgrounds, and they included learners of Chinese, Chinese-speaking peers, and students of English. The diversity of participants was valuable for understanding the nuances of Chinese language learning in different contexts, even though the research locations were primarily situated in China, the United States and Australia.

Figure 3:

The number of participants in the reviewed articles.Note: The areas with dashed lines indicate that the numbers of native Chinese speakers involved in the two studies were unclear.

As shown in Table 6, the reviewed articles covered a wide range of language proficiency levels, from beginners to advanced mid- or high-level learners. The mix of participants in Chen and Zhan (2020), Jin (2018), Luo and Gui (2021), Luo and Yang (2016, 2022, Pamintuan et al. (2018), and Yang and Yin (2018) provided an interesting contrast among learners at different levels of language competence. These mixed-level groups demonstrated how language students with dissimilar linguistic skills can be integrated when the learning contexts and the learners’ cultural and linguistic backgrounds are conducive to such integration. In the reviewed articles, this linguistic diversity demonstrated the applicability of WeChat to TCFL across proficiency levels and indicated the potential for the sustainable development of Chinese language programmes. The diversity of language proficiency levels in the articles also highlighted the importance of considering students’ differing linguistic skills when designing language-learning materials and conducting research.

3.3 Research methodologies

The 13 reviewed articles employed a variety of research methods to explore different aspects of the use of WeChat for TCFL. For instance, Tong et al. (2022) utilised a case study design to explore student engagement and authentic language, while Chen and Zhan (2020) adopted a similar approach to investigate the use of the WeChat recording tool for learning Chinese. Tong and Tsung (2018) also employed a case study design to study L2 Chinese students’ perceptions of using WeChat for Chinese learning in a one-year study abroad programme. Luo and Yang (2022) adopted a mixed methods design to examine the effects of synchronous online language exchange on Chinese learners’ linguistic and intercultural competence. Similarly, Jiang and Li’s (2018) study employed a mixed methods approach to link up learners of Chinese with native speakers through WeChat in an Australian tertiary CFL curriculum. Xu and Peng’s (2017) study also used a mixed methods design to investigate the effectiveness of using WeChat for language learning.

Several other research methods were also employed in the reviewed articles. For example, Sung and Poole’s (2017) study adopted an exploratory design to investigate the use of a smartphone social networking application for language learning. Wang et al.’s (2016) research also chose an exploratory design to facilitate online language exchanges. Luo and Yang (2016) employed the same kind of design to verify the effectiveness of applying WeChat to Chinese language classrooms. Some of the articles in the sample relied on quasi-experimental or qualitative research designs. For example, Pamintuan et al. (2018) adopted a quasi-experimental design to investigate the use of WeChat for CFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition, while Jin (2018) employed a qualitative design to explore what language development affordances WeChat provided to students of Chinese in a study abroad programme. Finally, Yang and Yin (2018) chose a within-subjects research design to expose all participants to learning colloquialisms on mobile phones with WeChat and printed materials.

To investigate various aspects of Chinese language learning through WeChat, the authors of the reviewed articles employed an array of data collection tools, which encompassed both qualitative and quantitative methods, such as tests, surveys, interviews, observation checklists, WeChat communication records, and reflection journals. These varied tools allowed the gathering of extensive and diverse data from multiple sources, which offered a holistic perspective on language learning. For instance, Tong et al. (2022) used WeChat chat histories and student surveys to collect data on the use of the app for Chinese language learning. Luo and Yang (2022) collected data from various sources, including transcripts of cultural discussions in WeChat groups, Skype conversations, reflection journals, end-of-programme interviews, and end-of-semester questionnaires to examine the impact of WeChat on students’ cultural learning. Similarly, Luo and Gui (2021) collected naturally occurring interaction data, learners’ reflection journals, informal interviews, end-of-programme interviews, students’ questionnaire responses, and teacher–researcher reflective journals to assess the effectiveness of WeChat in promoting language learning.

Chen and Zhan (2020) employed a variety of methods, including online surveys, email questions, learner recordings, instructor feedback recordings, reflections, lesson plans and class notes. Tong and Tsung (2018) used interviews and open-ended survey questions to verify the effectiveness of WeChat in enhancing Chinese language proficiency. Pamintuan et al. (2018) utilised profiling surveys and observation checklists to evaluate WeChat-based language instruction. Other studies, such as Jiang and Li (2018), Jin (2018), Sung and Poole (2017), Wang et al. (2016) and Xu and Peng (2017) employed a combination of surveys, observations and interviews to explore the impact of WeChat on various aspects of language learning, including interactional and communicative competence, writing proficiency, and task-based learning. In Yang and Yin’s study (2018), a vocabulary-knowledge scale was used to create pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests in order to investigate students’ retention of colloquialisms. The questionnaire for this study consisted of 11 Likert items that gauged attitudes towards WeChat-based vocabulary learning, along with three open-ended questions aimed at uncovering the advantages and disadvantages of the app’s use as well as the recommendations for its use.

3.4 Language learning

In the reviewed articles, the use of WeChat for language learning emerged as a significant topic. WeChat offered a wide array of features, including structured language tasks, support for language exchange and assistance with classroom instruction. The platform’s capabilities extended to individual and pair recording, homework management and instructor feedback, all of which played a significant role in improving the quality of language learning experiences.

When it came to enhancing language proficiency, some of the articles underscored the positive impact of WeChat on learners’ linguistic skills. For example, Luo and Yang (2016) reported that their WeChat project was instrumental in boosting students’ Chinese language abilities across various dimensions, including vocabulary, character recognition, grammar, speaking, listening, reading and writing. Pamintuan et al. (2018) drew attention to a notable difference in vocabulary acquisition performance between their study’s experimental group, which used WeChat and the control group. Similarly, the comparison of WeChat and printed materials made by Yang and Yin (2018) demonstrated that distributing vocabulary-learning materials through WeChat messages aligned with the participants’ preference for using mobile devices, which enhanced the potential for incidental vocabulary learning. However, this approach predominantly facilitated learners’ short-term retention of words. Collectively, these findings confirm the assertions of Barrot (2022), Muftah (2023) and Sun and Asmawi (2023) regarding the positive impact of social media on language learning and teaching.

In the reviewed articles, the effects of WeChat went beyond linguistic growth. They also led to a deep appreciation for Chinese cultural nuances. Sung and Poole’s (2017) study investigated the app’s role in weekly language learning, and it revealed that participants not only acquired language skills but also deepened their cultural knowledge through interactions with peers. This dimension of the impact of WeChat on learning Chinese involved learners’ development of a comprehensive understanding of the cultural context in conjunction with the language’s usage and representation. The students in this study valued the cultural learning aspect, as it provided them with opportunities to explore China and its culture beyond the confines of the classroom. Engaging in culture-related discussions using WeChat facilitated a deep sense of cultural immersion (Luo & Yang, 2016, 2022) and garnered especially positive evaluations (Luo & Gui, 2021). The integration of WeChat into the learning process enabled learners to gain insights into different cultural perspectives. In essence, the influence of the app extended beyond language acquisition; it played a crucial role in enhancing students’ cultural competence and enriched their overall experiences of learning Chinese.

3.5 Social interactions

In addition to fostering linguistic growth, WeChat played a vital role in shaping the social interactions linked to language learning. The connection between linguistic development and WeChat-based social interactions underscored the app’s holistic impact on the learning process. WeChat proved to be a versatile platform that facilitated various aspects of social engagement in different educational settings. Luo and Yang (2016) discussed the app’s contributions to classroom instruction, including socialisation and information sharing. Xu and Peng (2017) examined the role of WeChat in facilitating class collaboration, while Luo and Yang (2022) emphasised its role in creating social communities among learners of Chinese, which generated cross-cultural discussions.

WeChat served as a platform for instant interactions between teachers and students in informal settings (Tong et al., 2022). Chen and Zhan (2020) recognised its positive impact on teacher–learner language contact. Furthermore, Xu and Peng (2017) showed the app’s effectiveness in providing feedback on oral production, which benefited students in terms of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and content improvement. Yang and Yin’s (2018) study described WeChat as a rapid feedback mechanism for language learners, compared to traditional printed materials. WeChat also bridged the gap between learners of Chinese and Chinese international students, thus addressing limitations in classroom teaching, as noted by Jiang and Li (2018).

WeChat facilitated students’ real-life conversations in environments where authentic language was used. For example, Jin (2018) revealed how the app efficiently disseminated programme updates and offered opportunities for informal interactions with native speakers, thereby fostering authentic communication. Tong et al.’s (2022) study demonstrated that the use of WeChat in a class group encouraged authentic language use and helped achieve authentic-language learning goals, while Sung and Poole (2017) drew attention to structured language tasks and authentic communication in Chinese–English tandem projects. Jiang and Li (2018), Luo and Gui (2021), Luo and Yang (2022) and Wang et al. (2016) also provided learners of Chinese with opportunities to interact with native Chinese speakers, allowing them to immerse themselves in authentic learning environments. Opportunities to use the language beyond the classroom were instrumental in CFL learners’ development. The advantages of WeChat-based authentic learning align with the objectives of the Common European framework of reference for languages, which emphasises the practical application of language learning to real-life situations (Council of Europe, 2019, 2020).

Taken together, the reviewed articles underlined the versatility of WeChat in supporting communication and collaboration between students, teachers and native speakers. When the interplay between the social context of language learning and technology was highlighted, the emphasis placed on the former confirmed Yeh and Swinehart’s (2022) results concerning social media’s role in promoting interactions through target-language online communities. University collaborations, diverse linguistic groups and teacher–student engagement all contributed to the learning process, which was catalysed by the prominence of WeChat in social interactivity. This learning environment strengthened bonds and encouraged interactions, reinforcing the idea that students played an active part in co-creating learning materials, as noted by Kukulska-Hulme et al. (2021). The role of WeChat in enriching the social context proved valuable regardless of the implemented forms of collaboration. Learners benefited from interactions that bridged knowledge gaps and increased their competence. WeChat-mediated interactions, which recurred as learning activities across the reviewed articles, underscored the impact of the social context on student learning (Vygotsky, 1986; Wells, 2000); they also pushed forward learning in a dynamic environment (North et al., 2022).

3.6 Empowering learner agency

Regarding language learning and social interactions, the concept of learner agency highlights students’ role in shaping purposeful linguistic engagements within their contexts of reference. This section delves into the rationale for promoting learner agency as evidenced by the reviewed articles, thus shedding light on how WeChat can contribute to empowering students in their language-learning journey.

Chen and Zhan (2020) found that WeChat recordings for linguistic tasks provided opportunities for increased oral and aural practice, which allowed learners to articulate responses spontaneously. Tong and Tsung (2018) explored Australian university students’ perceptions of using WeChat for Chinese language learning in a study abroad programme and revealed facets of learner agency such as language choice and sustained platform use. According to Tong et al. (2022), learners’ engagement was positively associated with their sense of control over their pedagogical paths. Similarly, Jiang and Li (2018) argued that WeChat tasks offered a high degree of agency that enabled students to determine when and where they completed tasks, what questions they asked, and how often they practised before posting their voice messages. This elevated agency in language learning facilitated personalised task execution, which fostered enhanced control of and engagement with the learning process.

The adaptability and convenience of WeChat, which was highlighted by Luo and Yang (2016), extended learning beyond the confines of the classroom, thus supporting independent learning practices. According to Yang and Yin (2018), students’ utilisation of the app’s translation function facilitated rapid communication and served as a valuable tool for addressing queries that arose during self-learning. This reinforced the role of WeChat in nurturing independent and resourceful learning practices. Exchange programmes (Luo & Gui, 2021; Luo & Yang, 2022) were also found to be effective in boosting student engagement and improving language skills.

These findings on the benefits of WeChat use resonate with Reinhardt’s (2019) argument that the conscious use of social media can promote learner agency in various ways. Students can exercise control over their learning experiences (Larsen-Freeman et al., 2021) by selecting among a range of learning methods according to their preferences and needs. In the reviewed articles, this agency-driven approach nurtured ownership and responsibility for learning (Holec, 1981). This level of ownership drove active engagement and created enthusiasm for the learning process. By providing opportunities for learners to exercise their agency (Wang & Jiang, 2023), WeChat empowered them to pay attention to learning activities and engage with peers and educators. Some of the reviewed articles looked at settings that extended beyond the classroom (Hafner & Miller, 2021). WeChat dismantled spatial and temporal barriers, and it permitted participation in any location and at any time, thus amplifying student responsibility and engagement. The students’ considerable strides mirrored their commitment and impetus in the learning journey. Environments that championed agency stimulated students’ evolution into responsible language learners (Kukulska-Hulme et al., 2022; North et al., 2022).

3.7 Motivation

Motivation plays a critical role in empowering students to take charge of their educational journey, and it intertwines language learning and social interactions within a dynamic landscape. The use of WeChat notably enhanced students’ motivation to learn Chinese. This result echoes the findings of Luo and Yang (2022), according to whom “enhanced motivation in learning Chinese is another frequently discussed benefit, as reflected in the students’ highly positive perceptions toward the exchange as a whole” (p. 44).

Learners exhibited favourable attitudes towards WeChat’s role in learning, and they emphasised its contribution to feedback (Xu & Peng, 2017). Several reviewed articles delved deeper into the enjoyment that learners derived from using WeChat for language learning. For instance, Luo and Yang (2016) observed that the adoption of WeChat enhanced student motivation to learn Chinese. The app’s influence was underscored by the consensus that it made classes more enjoyable, interesting and exciting. Also, as noted by Jiang and Li (2018), interactions with native speakers on WeChat inspired learners, who expressed satisfaction and enjoyment while engaging in exchanges based on asking and answering questions. These interactions served as catalysts for a strong desire to improve language learning, which ultimately enhanced students’ confidence in speaking Chinese.

The active participation of learners and their use of Chinese in WeChat-based class groups (Tong et al., 2022) relates to the theme of student engagement discussed in the previous section. Learners’ engagement was positively associated with their sense of control over their pedagogical paths (Tong et al., 2022), which enabled them to determine the factors influencing their participation in learning tasks (Jiang & Li, 2018). Students possessed both the capability and the inclination to extend their control over learning tasks beyond the classroom (Luo & Yang, 2016). Some of them continued to demonstrate their commitment to the learning process, especially when striving for self-learning, which underscored the role of WeChat in nurturing independent and resourceful pedagogical practices (Yang & Yin, 2018).

The reviewed articles emphasised the significant role of motivation in driving student actions. This finding is in keeping with Dörnyei and Ushioda’s (2021) assertion regarding the importance of motivation in decisions related to participation in language learning activities, persistence and effort investment. Overall, the articles suggested that students, fuelled by motivation, actively engaged with their learning contexts. This finding resonates with John and Yunus’ (2021) results, which show that integrating social media into the classroom has a positive impact on motivation. Students’ active engagement with learning was closely associated with their intrinsic motivation. When using WeChat for pedagogical activities, they expressed inherent satisfaction and enjoyment (Dörnyei, 2020). Furthermore, their increased confidence, particularly in interactive exchanges with native speakers, arose from the social aspects of the learning contexts. Enjoyment, interest and confidence converged as powerful factors that sustained and kindled motivation, as noted by Dörnyei (2001).