Promoting critical reading instruction in higher education: a three-step training scheme facilitated by using corpus technology

2.1 Critical reading and critical thinking skills

Critical reading involves an interactive process using different levels of thinking simultaneously, including analysis (which involves clarifying information by examining its components), synthesis (which integrates relevant parts to form a cohesive whole), and evaluation (which involves setting standards and assessing ideas against those standards to determine their validity) (Flynn, 1989). While there may not be a singular definition of critical reading, authors often describe the attitudes or behaviors expected of critical readers as well as the objectives that critical reading aims to achieve (Frager & Thompson, 1985; Simpson, 1996). According to Elder and Paul (2020), critical readers approach texts skeptically, using their own background knowledge to evaluate the validity of the text, the author’s purpose, and the genre of the text. They then make subjective decisions about whether to accept or reject the text. Although scholars may have different definitions of critical reading, they generally agree on the process of critical reading, which includes three steps: interpreting the text, evaluating it, and responding to it (Tang, 2009).

Thistlethwaite (1990) pointed out an overlap between the skills commonly associated with critical thinking and those found in textbooks focused on critical reading. Skills such as suspending judgment, questioning, maintaining flexibility, making inferences, predicting outcomes, and recognizing bias are examples that can be found in both critical thinking and critical reading textbooks (Sherbourne, 1977).

In this study, critical reading is regarded as an important means to cultivate critical thinking, which can help students discover, explore, and solve real-life problems. Critical reading skills share all the traits of critical thinking skills, which is why critical reading relies on critical thinking. Both approaches emphasize questioning, understanding, inference, comparison, contrast, and verification.

2.2 Research on teaching critical reading skills

It holds great significance for teachers to teach critical reading skills in higher education, because students will not naturally acquire these skills without being exposed to and instructed in them (Abd Kadir et al., 2014).

Regarding theoretical research on teaching critical reading skills, the constructivism learning theory and critical discourse analysis strongly support the importance of developing critical reading abilities (Zhang & Xie, 2012). Firstly, the constructivism theory emphasizes that critical reading is an active process of constructing knowledge. This involves analyzing, comparing, and evaluating the words, perspectives, and facts presented in the text by comparing them with other similar texts and existing knowledge, ultimately leading to the formation of one’s own understanding of the text (Zhang & Xie, 2012). Therefore, the cultivation of critical reading skills should involve engaging in dialog, questioning, inquiry, and self-regulation. Secondly, as Janks (2010) pointed out, critical reading necessitates discourse analysis, which involves readers comprehending how lexical, grammatical, and discursive resources are employed to convey meaning. It entails not only understanding the intended meaning of writers but also recognizing how meaning is conveyed (Fang et al., 2019).

In empirical research, numerous studies have examined the teaching of critical reading skills outside of China. These studies have provided valuable recommendations on effective teaching strategies, text selection, teaching modes, and the integration of technology. First, regarding teaching strategies, previous research suggests the combination of reading and writing (Clifford, 1980), the implementation of questioning strategies (Barnes, 1979; Tsui, 2002), and the establishment of learning communities as effective strategies for teaching critical reading skills (Kannan, 2018; Wilson, 2016). Secondly, in terms of text selection, historical texts (Thompson & Frager, 1984), literary texts (Commeyras, 1990; Tung & Chang, 2009), and informative texts have been identified as suitable materials for developing critical thinking (Dwyer & Summy, l986; Olson et al., l989; Thistlethwaite, 1990). For example, Cioffi (1992) proposed starting with teaching advertisements, then progressing to news reports, and finally integrating literary works. Thirdly, different teaching modes have been advocated. For example, a three-stage model of textual reading has been put forward by Wallace (2003), encompassing literal, critical, and cultural understanding of a text.

Astleitner’s (2002) review explores three approaches to using technology to teach Critical Thinking (CT) skills. The first approach, using technology without any instruction, refers to using technology as a tool without providing any guidance on CT concepts and skills. Unfortunately, there is no unanimous agreement regarding the impact of this approach on enhancing CT skills (Alsaleh, 2020). The second approach, using technology with direct instruction, involves using technology to directly deliver instructional content across various subjects. This can include computer simulations (Gokhale, 1996; Yeh & Strang, 1997), multi-media enhanced products (Ellis, 2001), and Mindtools software (Jonassen et al., 1998). Astleitner’s (2002) encouraging findings indicate that the strategic use of internet websites and computer software, in conjunction with direct instruction, can serve as effective tools for bolstering critical thinking skills. The third approach, using technology with indirect instruction, involves utilizing technology to facilitate instruction within a traditional learning environment. Examples of this include online discussions (MacKnight, 2000; Mandernach, 2006), web-based learning (MacGregor & Lou, 2005), and inquiry-based learning (Nielsen & Tahir, 2001). Extensive research has been conducted on this approach, showing promising results in promoting CT skills. Nevertheless, there is a lack of systematic training that incorporates the evaluation of students’ learning outcomes, an essential component for examining the application and development of critical reading skills in existing research. To address this gap, our research will provide systematic training for students and examine their learning outcomes, thereby facilitating a thorough exploration of how students apply and develop critical reading skills.

2.3 CBLP and corpus-based teaching of reading

Corpus-based language pedagogy (CBLP) is an innovative language pedagogy introduced by Ma et al., (2022a). This language approach is based on Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge (1986) and involves the use of corpus linguistics technology to enhance language instruction in the classroom. CBLP relies on teachers’ corpus literacy (CL), which refers to the ability to use corpus technology to explore linguistic features and support language acquisition for learners (Heather & Helt, 2012: p. 417). CL and CBLP encompass two key aspects of teachers’ knowledge and skills: (1) understanding how to utilize corpus data as a tool for learning, and (2) knowing how to incorporate corpus use and resources effectively in language classrooms as a teaching tool. According to Ma et al. (2022a), teachers should acquire both CL and CBLP to effectively implement corpus-based teaching in the classroom.

Previous studies have indicated that technology-based reading interventions have several benefits for critical reading instruction. These interventions have been found to increase motivation, reduce cognitive load, and support personalized learning (Jamshidifarsani et al., 2019). The use of concordancers in language learning has also been shown to be more effective than traditional grammar books, dictionaries, and course books. Concordancers provide easy access to real language in use, help develop students’ analytical capacities and foster their critical thinking skills (Gabel, 2001). Researchers have adopted a technology-driven approach, using the keyword inquiry method and the corpus tool AntConc to stimulate students’ analytical and deep reading (Xu & He, 2016; Xu et al., 2019). Additionally, researchers have used concordancing to teach literal texts, which aids in the development of students’ critical thinking skills (Daud & Husin, 2004). However, it is important to note that most studies focus primarily on the technology-based reading approach and do not thoroughly examine learners’ cognitive processes.

The objective of this study was to shift the focus of corpus-based reading instruction from a technically oriented approach to a cognitively oriented one, expanding on previous work in several significant ways. Furthermore, we followed the advice of Ma et al. (2022b) and integrated task-based language teaching (TBLT) with corpus-based language pedagogy in this study to guide students in conducting critical reading. The reading process consisted of three stages: pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading. Additionally, we developed a three-step training scheme that combined critical reading tasks with corpus technology. This scheme included online corpus-based training with critical reading tasks, a face-to-face corpus-based critical reading lesson with concrete tasks, and independent corpus-based reading after class. The three-step training scheme offered theoretical guidance for effective corpus-based teaching to enhance students’ critical reading skills. Moreover, this study systematically assessed participants’ learning outcomes using qualitative and quantitative data.

Therefore, the study aims to address the following research questions (RQs):

3.1 Participants

A total of 45 second-year English majors from a university in the mainland of China participated in the study. The study utilized a corpus-based teaching approach for the compulsory course “English Reading III”. The lesson focused on “Critical reading of political speeches” and employed the corpus tool AntConc. Before the lesson, the participants were randomly divided into 8 groups, each consisting of 6 members. Each group has a designated leader responsible for group management. This online teaching platform “Duifenyi” (a learning app accessible both on mobile phones and computers) was used as the learning environment. While most participants had some prior knowledge of discourse features in political speeches, they had no experience with using corpus tools. Since they were accustomed to teacher-centered teaching, they lacked effective cognitive skills when reading long passages.

3.2 A three-step training scheme for developing students’ critical reading skills

In this study, we designed and implemented a three-step training scheme based on a corpus-based language pedagogy (CBLP) (Ma et al., 2022a, 2022b) to enhance students’ critical reading skills (see Figure 1).

Figure 1:

A three-step training scheme for developing students’ critical reading skills.

The first step of the training involved a one-week online program. During this step, the students were introduced to the corpus tool AntConc and gained an initial understanding of the speech text. Before the experimental lesson, the course instructor, who was also one of the researchers, compiled a reference corpus to compare with the reading passage to be taught – Douglass’ speech. The self-compiled corpus, along with three short instructional videos on downloading, installing, and searching in AntConc, was shared with the students. Students worked individually and discussed any difficulties they encountered within their groups. The team leader ensured that all team members were familiar with using the corpus tool and provided assistance when needed. Additionally, the teacher assigned tasks to students through the teaching platform, requiring students to describe the difficulties they encountered when reading Douglass’s political speech “What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?” and answer a series of questions designed by the teacher to help them engage in critical reading. Students were also instructed to take notes of their own questions during the process. These pre-class critical reading activities aimed to activate students’ prior knowledge, promote independent thinking, and encourage the expression of personal opinions. This facilitated interaction among the author, the text, and the readers before the lesson took place.

In the second step, 45 English majors attended a 90-min extensive reading class in a computer lab. The class was conducted face-to-face, allowing the teacher to guide students on using corpus data as a learning tool for discourse analysis. In order to create an interactive learning environment that enabled students to construct knowledge, the teacher gradually guided them through a series of hands-on concordance tasks that aimed to enhance their critical reading skills. The lesson followed the four-stage corpus-based lesson design model proposed by Ma et al. (2022a) and adapted the four stages: teacher demonstration and guidance in searching the keywords, hands-on corpus searches by students, inductive discovery by students, and output exercises. The teaching activities were as follows:

 Stage 1: Teacher demonstration and guidance in searching the keywords

1. The teacher demonstrated the operation in AntConc and generated the keyword list of the speech (Keyword analysis).

   Stage 2: Hands-on corpus searches by students

2. The teacher guided students to search and observe the concordance lines of those frequently used nouns.

3. Students worked individually to complete concordancing exercises on the lexical features of the nouns.

   Stage 3: Inductive discovery by students

4. Students worked in pairs to draw the conclusion that they were related to religious color, which is one of the textual features in political speech.

5. The teacher demonstrated interpersonal meaning analysis of the frequently used pronoun “we” and students analyzed other frequently used pronouns “you” and “they” using the concordance plot function and mind map.

   Stage 4: Output exercises

6. Individual interpretation of the search results in AntConc

7. Group discussion and in-group sharing of the critical reading questions based on the search results

8. Group representatives shared ideas with the whole class and the teacher gave feedback

The third step took place after class and involved a two-week period where students conducted independent research. After the experimental lesson, students were required to submit individual written reports. They were asked to analyze the main content of Martin Luther King’s speech “I Have a Dream” or John Steinbeck’s novel “Of Mice and Men”. The written report had to meet four specific criteria: (1) demonstrating the reading strategies employed to complete tasks; (2) providing examples of hands-on searching for critical reading and describing the deductive and inductive reasoning process; (3) presenting the connections made between the reading material and external sources; (4) reflecting on their analytical path to demonstrate self-awareness about the critical reading process.

3.3 Procedures

The three-step training scheme for developing students’ critical reading skills was spread over 4 weeks, as shown in Table 1.

3.4 Instruments and data analysis

The current study used a mixed methods approach, collecting both qualitative and quantitative data for a comprehensive evaluation.

4.1 Students’ attitudes towards the three-step training scheme for critical reading

4.2 The development of students’ critical reading skills through hands-on concordancing

Through the analysis of two written reports from participants, it was observed that hands-on concordancing significantly enhanced students’ critical reading skills. Two key findings emerged from the analysis.

Firstly, participants demonstrated the use of four types of critical reading skills when analyzing text: speculation, noticing, inference, and verification. This finding aligns with previous research by Chun (2011).

4.2.1 Speculation

The students’ use of the speculation skill was shown as they predicted the main idea and derived understanding based on concordance evidence.

Excerpt 1 from student A’s written report: “The figure above (Figure 2) is the Keyword List of speech in descending order of keyness, which presents the text’s main topic words (N). According to the keywords with a large keyness index, such as “ring”, “freedom”, “Negro”, “dream”, “satisfied”, “justice”, etc., I can predict that (S) the speech is related to black freedom, justice, and Martin Luther King’s dream, and the theme of the speech can be roughly concluded (S) as follows: Martin Luther King has a dream for black Americans’ freedom and will never be satisfied until racial justice becomes a reality and the Negro gains freedom.”

Figure 2:

Keyword list of Douglass’s political speech “What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?” in descending order of keyness.

Excerpt 2 from student B’s written report: “After rereading this novel, I feel (S) most people are lonely. How (S) does the novel render the atmosphere of loneliness specifically?”

Student A predicted the search results in advance and drew a conclusion without verification at the initial phase of his thinking process. When describing his findings or conclusions, he used the keyword list as evidence to display his speculation. The speculation was described as “it can be seen that …”. At the same time, student B described her speculations without concordance evidence. She used subjective descriptions such as “I feel …” and raised questions with “how …”.

4.2.3 Inference

Students’ use of inference skills was shown as they inferred meaning and relationships based on the evidence derived from the concordance.

Excerpt 5 from student A’s written report:

Locations: in whose symbolic shadow, in the process of gaining our rightful place, with this faith

Actions: stand, dramatize, cash, refuse to believe, remind, conduct, not allow, rise, cannot walk alone, make the pledge, march ahead, cannot turn back, can never be satisfied, face, will be able to, hew, transform, work, pray, will be free, allow, speed up

Recipients: a shameful condition, check, America, our struggle, creative protest, the difficulties of today and tomorrow, freedom

As can be seen from (N) figures  3 and 4, “we” is the most commonly used personal pronoun in the text compared with other personal pronouns, which are widely distributed in the text. According to the “action” words of “we” (N), words changed from “stand”, “cash”, “refuse to believe”, “remind”, “not allow” to “march ahead”, “cannot turn back”, “face”, “will be able to”, “speed up”, with their meanings changing from resistance to inspiring people to hope for the future. The logical sequence of the author’s speech can also be known from (I) this change. Martin Luther King’s extensive use of the word “we” also indicated that (I) he stands with the black masses, fighting for common goals, and thus bridging the gap with the audience, making them more likely to be inspired.

Figure 3:

Concordance plot of the pronoun “we” from Martin Luther King’s speech “I Have a Dream”.

Figure 4:

Concordance lines of the pronoun “we” from Martin Luther King’s speech “I Have a Dream”.

Excerpt 6 from student B’s written report:

What is the relationship between George and Lennie?

① They are friends who share the same dream.

② From the psychological perspective, Lennie is George’s Id, while George is Lennie’s ego.

According to Freud’s theory of personality, the complete personality structure consists of three major parts, namely “id”, “ego”, and “superego”. The id follows the pleasure principle. It has no idea of what value is and what morality is. The ego is oneself facing reality, which is developed through acquiring learning and interacting with the environment. It is one of the structures of consciousness. The ego is the regulator of the id and the external environment. It should satisfy the needs of the id and deter acts that violate social norms, moral codes, and laws. The superego is made up of social norms, ethics, and values. It seeks perfection.

The relationship between “id” and “superego”: They relate to each other. Regardless of reality, the id simply wants to satisfy desires and seek pleasure. The superego limits human desires and actions according to the moral code. The ego moves between the id and the superego. It implements the desires of the id under realistic conditions and obeys the mandatory rules of the superego. It must not only look for things that meet the needs of the id, but also consider that what is sought cannot violate the values of the superego.

Student A made reference to the Hallidayan framework (Halliday, 1990) to analyze the concordance lines of the pronoun “we” by classifying words into the types of “location”, “action”, and “recipients”. Then, he inferred through corpus evidence (I) to analyze the interpersonal meaning of this political speech. Inferring deep meaning from texts is not easy for language learners, so sufficient background knowledge might be well prepared. As shown in excerpt 6 from student B, she made correlations to Freud’s theory of personality in the psychological field. After speculation, she inferred the relationship (I) between George and Lennie without commenting on concordance to gain a conclusion.

5.1 Integrating corpus technology with effective pedagogical approaches to enhance critical reading instruction

The findings of this study highlight the benefits of integrating corpus technology into a reading course to enhance critical reading instruction. It indicates that incorporating technology with appropriate instructions is crucial for promoting critical reading skills and improving students’ critical language awareness. Previous studies have shown that using technology with direct and indirect instructions can promote students’ critical thinking skills (Astleitner, 2002). Examples of such technology include learning management systems and online discussions. In this study, a mixed method approach was used, combining corpus technology with direct instructions in the classroom and utilizing a “duifenyi” teaching platform for indirect instructions outside the classroom. This approach allowed for tasks to be sent through the teaching platform, fostering an interactive learning environment through online discussions, and engaging students in hands-on concordance activities for discourse analysis during class. In particular, the teacher’s self-compiled video played a significant role in familiarizing students with the usage of the corpus tool AntConc before the lesson, ensuring its effective utilization during class. With the teacher’s step-by-step instruction during class, students successfully completed hands-on concordancing activities.

5.2 Factors teachers may consider in implementing effective corpus-based critical reading teaching

First, this study found that students showed a preference for learner-centered activities such as peer discussions and group discussions during critical reading activities. This suggests that creating a critical community where students can engage in discussions and reflect on their reading process is important for them to make informed judgments. This finding aligns with previous empirical research emphasizing the vital role of peer discussions in enhancing critical reading skills by exposing students to multiple perspectives (Kannan, 2018). Moreover, class discussions can effectively foster higher-level cognitive thinking skills (Hansen & Salemi, 2012). Previous research by Hopkins (1993) also suggested that learners who actively participate in the learning process demonstrate the most progress in their critical thinking skills. Therefore, instructors should adopt the role of a facilitator rather than being responsible for explaining the literature content. This teaching approach aligns with the dialog strategies proposed by Burbules (1993), utilizing dialogs as an inquiry-based method to organize corpus-searching activities in the classroom. Through these discussions, ideas can flow from the instructor to the students, as well as among the students themselves, creating a safe and supportive environment for them to develop their own judgments (Taylor, 2002). Therefore, teachers should prioritize creating a critical community through learner-centered activities, encourage class discussions to foster higher-level cognitive thinking skills, and adopt a facilitator role to promote student engagement and independent judgment formation.

Secondly, this study showed that students exhibited increased motivation and interest in using the corpus tool for reading, compared to their previous frustrating reading experiences. This suggests that the three-step training scheme employed in this study effectively promotes critical reading. Hence, teachers should carefully consider how to design critical reading procedures. Wallace (2003) proposed a three-phase critical teaching model that can serve as a useful guide. It begins with an initial phase aimed at developing macro literacy skills, followed by a middle phase focused on studying specific textual features, and concludes with a final phase that encourages students to approach texts from a different perspective and relate them to real-world contexts. Based on this model, the training scheme utilized in this study can be divided into three steps (see Figure 1 for details). Step 1 allows students to acquire an initial understanding while step 2 involves training students to analyze the specific texts in depth. Finally, after completing these two steps, participants are expected to apply critical reading skills to verify assumptions in different contexts. Each of the three steps emphasizes different levels of critical thinking. However, it is important to note that in practice, individuals may progress from an advanced level of analysis back to initial levels or adjust their previous interpretations upon receiving new information. As the thinking process is dynamic, this three-step training scheme can be perceived as a continuous cycle. Hence, teachers should consider implementing a three-step training scheme that fosters different levels of critical thinking. This includes providing an initial understanding, analyzing specific texts, and applying critical reading skills to various contexts.

Thirdly, when designing corpus-based critical reading teaching, teachers should consider two principles for task design in each stage. Firstly, it is important to sequence tasks appropriately. Wallace and Wray (2016) argue that tasks should be arranged in a specific order, starting from making critical choices about reading and progressing to engaging in collaborative peer discussions. By the end of the course, students should be able to present a synthesis of their ideas as a final product. In this research, pre-lesson tasks included four types of questions aimed at stimulating students’ initial understanding of the text. In the classroom, group work was centered around hands-on concordance exercises, guiding students to further analyze and interpret the reading material. Finally, the post-lesson task required participants to analyze other texts and present their own perspectives. Secondly, there should be continuity between tasks, with clear connections established. Teachers should explicitly highlight the relationships between different tasks (Kannan, 2018). For example, in this study, the teacher designed and sequenced questions that guided students in their inquiry-based learning. This sequence began with cognitive questions, progressed to convergent questions, advanced to divergent questions, and concluded with evaluation questions. As a result, teachers should adhere to the principles of sequencing tasks and maintaining continuity between tasks. This involves arranging tasks in a logical order and ensuring that there is a clear progression from initial understanding to collaborative analysis. Additionally, teachers should establish connections between different tasks, allowing students to build upon their prior knowledge and engage in a cohesive learning experience.

Finally, teachers may consider how to select appropriate texts for critical reading instruction. Thompson and Frager (l984) argue that history is an excellent domain for demonstrating the value of critical reading to students. They suggest that incorporating conflict in reading materials can be a powerful approach to encourage students to actively engage in critical reading, seek further reading, and enhance reading comprehension. Based on this idea, Douglass’ political speech was chosen for its relevance to slavery in America. This speech has the potential to broaden the cultural perspective of foreign students, especially those who may not be familiar with American culture. In other words, the title of the speech “What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?” introduces cognitive conflict, which can stimulate students’ motivation for critical reading. Furthermore, according to Tung and Chang (2009), literary-based texts are particularly effective in promoting critical thinking skills. They argue that reading and analyzing literary texts closely align with the core components of critical thinking. When students engage with literary texts, they are challenged to draw upon their prior knowledge and personal experiences to construct meaning from the text. Based on this premise, John Steinbeck’s “Of Mice and Men” was chosen as the post-lesson literature to assess students’ ability to engage in complex critical thinking processes. By analyzing this literary work, students would be required to apply their critical thinking skills to interpret and evaluate the text. Therefore, teachers should carefully select texts that are appropriate for critical reading instruction.