Exploring the use of tutorial recordings for beginner distance learners of Chinese

2.1 Vicarious participation in recorded tutorial dialogue

This study explores the potential benefits of learning vicariously through accessing recorded tutorials for beginner learners of Chinese. In educational contexts, the term ‘vicarious learning’ has been used to describe situations “where a learning experience is witnessed and reacted to as a learning experience by another learner” (Lee, 2005, p. 1958), and recorded tutorial dialogue as a potential source of such indirect learning experiences has been investigated in different subject areas such as science, engineering and health education (Chi et al., 2001; Lee, 2005, 2010; Mayes, 2015; McKendree et al., 1998; Rabold et al., 2008). Dialogue between a tutor and their students is structured to facilitate learning and can, ideally, be seen as an externalisation of the learning process (Lee, 2005), from which others can also learn. While direct participants in interactions need to use their attentional resources to attend to input and simultaneously select and formulate their own contributions, listeners can focus on tutorial dialogue more fully.

Although there are benefits and drawbacks of indirect as opposed to direct participation, accessing tutorial dialogue vicariously has been shown to facilitate deep learning and may be superior to listening to monologic tutor talk as research points to cognitive, social and emotional benefits from listening to other learners who are at the same level of understanding (discussed in Mayes, 2015). Based on the sociocognitive construct of alignment, Atkinson (2002, 2014) and Lee (2005, 2010) describe the empathic response vicarious learners show toward live attenders. Far from being passive observers, vicarious learners identify and empathize with interactants and are highly active at both a cognitive and affective level. This is pertinent to the current enquiry into distance learners who often lack sufficient personal contact and, as a consequence, may experience feelings of isolation in contexts where the absence of a tutor and peers may lead to low self-efficacy beliefs and even a sense of failure (Hurd, 2006, 2008; Mills, 2014).

Recorded lectures were, of course, an essential learning tool for students across the Higher Education sector during the recent pandemic, although the practice of lecture capture had started in most institutions in pre-pandemic years and had led to a rapidly emerging body of literature studying the effectiveness of the practice, especially in terms of student attainment (Danielson et al., 2014; Edwards & Clinton, 2019; Leadbeater et al., 2013). Findings are sometimes conflicting, and, overall, inconclusive, and studies of lecture capture tend to lack a critical discussion of the instructivist approach to teaching in higher education. The potential benefits of learning from dialogue as described above, or the concept of vicarious participation, find no mention, and there is insufficient discussion of how to embed recordings into learning design in a strategic and pedagogically meaningful way. This was not helped by the rushed move to ‘emergency’ online teaching during the pandemic (Baggaley, 2020). By contrast, distance learning institutions are entirely reliant on successful online learning design and more likely to make use of a pedagogically informed combination of different types of tutorial provision.

2.2 Direct and indirect participation in language learning

We must take account, of course, of the ways in which language learning differs from the study of other subjects because the means through which students communicate is also their object of study, and because the development of linguistic competence involves cognitive processes that are distinct from other learning experiences. Interaction is considered vital for language development to occur (Gass, 1997, 2003; Lantolf & Thorne, 2006; Long, 1996; Mitchell et al., 2013), and both interaction and output continue to be seen as important drivers of language learning (Ellis, 2015; Swain, 2000). At the same time, indirect participation in interaction can also aid learning, and covert learner activity plays an essential part in processing linguistic input. Classroom-based studies of language learning show that listeners draw on the interactive environment around them to develop their linguistic competence (Fernández Dobao, 2016; Ohta, 2001, 2010; Slimani, 1989). Overhearers notice the correct and deviant language used by their peers and, through vicarious participation in the interactions they witness, rehearse language without the immediate pressure of direct social interaction. Listening to interactions can create spaces to repeat, manipulate and internalize language (Fernández Dobao, 2016), processes which are vital to acquiring the constructions needed to communicate in a new language and, potentially more so, in a language such as Chinese, which poses additional difficulties for UK learners.

2.3 Challenges of learning Chinese

It is well-established that learning Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) presents many challenges (Hu, 2010; Kan et al., 2018; Kan & McCormick, 2014; Shen, 2004, 2005). The key challenges include i) pronunciation, especially the tones; ii) the non-alphabetic written script (characters); and iii) the lack of obvious correlation between the sound and the written script. Regarding the pronunciation, there are many similar sounding words in Chinese, which are differentiated in meaning by tones (Lü, 2010). At the same time, there are many words which share exactly the same syllables and tones but mean different things and have different character representations. When it comes to the written script, the sheer number and complexity of characters plus the disconnection with the sounds place a greater cognitive processing load on learners (Grenfell & Harris, 2015). Due to such disconnection, a romanisation system, Pinyin, was developed in the 1950s in China to transliterate Mandarin Chinese sounds (i.e. Putonghua). It has been since used to teach Mandarin Chinese both in and outside China. This means that learners have to learn two systems at the same time, i.e., character form and Pinyin form. Research has shown that pronunciation, especially tones, and character recognition, as well as character production, are the two major hurdles at beginners’ level (Hu, 2010; Jongman et al., 2006; Liang & van Heuven, 2007; Xiao, 2010).

Learning Chinese online, especially when the online courses offer no tutorials, adds to the above challenges as learners get no instruction and feedback from a tutor, and no interaction with tutors and fellow learners. It is thus very important for beginner learners to have access to alternative audio and visual materials so that some challenges can be mediated. Although there has been extensive research looking into Chinese language learning strategies (Jongman et al., 2006; Kan et al., 2018; Ke, 1998; Liang & van Heuven, 2007; Lu, 2009; Shen, 2005; Sun & Luo, 2018; Tong & Tsung, 2020; Yin, 2003), there has been no research, as far as we are aware, on the effective use of recorded tutorials.

2.4 Online language learning and use of recorded tutorials at the Open University

Since 2008, language modules at the Open University have been making full use of a virtual learning environment that presents the module website as the hub of the module, gives students access to module resources and online interactivity, and allows students to engage in different ways with their tutor and their peers. In contrast to the newly established short courses, which are the subject of this enquiry, all undergraduate modules include tutor support in the form of asynchronous forum moderation as well as in-person and synchronous online group tuition. This model of supported online learning offers excellent learning opportunities but also comes with challenges, for example in terms of motivation (Hurd, 2006), fostering online participation (Hampel & Pleines, 2013), and learner anxiety in synchronous online interaction (Bárkányi, 2018; de los Arcos et al., 2009). Negotiating the affordances of the virtual learning environment itself poses another layer of challenges, i.e., ‘the particular challenges of innovation’ (White, 2014, p. 548), which all distance learners have to deal with. Stickler (2022, p. 22) points out that ‘technology does influence what happens in a language classroom, and not always in the way the teacher intends or realises’. For example, internet issues and bad sound quality can affect live tutorials and, also, their recordings.

The recording of synchronous online tutorials at the Open University’s School of Languages and Applied Linguistics follows a strict protocol, which allows students to attend tutorials that are not recorded if they prefer, while also recording some of the scheduled live tutorials and making them available to listen to in retrospect. Students are strongly advised to attend the synchronous online sessions, but attendance is not compulsory, and students can choose amongst live participation, watching recordings, or a combination of both. Usually, students who make use of recordings also attend live events. In a previous study, students of French, German and Spanish at intermediate and advanced levels who accessed recorded tutorials, reported benefits of tutorial recordings in terms of engaging with different voices and perspectives and emphasize that, unlike live tutorials which make heavy demands on participants’ processing capacities, recordings provide opportunities for reflection and consolidation (Pleines, 2020a, 2020b). In some cases, they also helped reduce feelings of isolation.

2.5 Research questions

Previous research into vicarious learning processes in language learning was conducted in contexts where students were able to engage both directly and indirectly, allowing them to support their learning by combining live and vicarious participation in tutorials, either in-person or online. By contrast, the current study explores a self-study online learning environment where tutorial interactions were accessed exclusively through recordings. The enquiry further extends previous research at the Open University (Pleines, 2020a, 2020b) by working with beginner learners and, notably, beginner learners who are studying a non-European language with a challenging script and pronunciation. Our work is based on a sociocognitive perspective (Atkinson, 2002, 2014; Batstone, 2010), suited to the underlying sociocognitive concept of vicarious learning, which combines the intrapersonal and the interpersonal and, by definition, involves the cognitive processing of a social event.

With these considerations in mind, the present study seeks to address the following overarching research question: In what ways do recorded tutorials facilitate learning for beginner Chinese learners in an online course?

We will focus on three aspects:

1. What use do learners make of the resource?

2. What elements do they focus on?

3. What perceived benefits, if any, do they report?

By exploring these aspects, the study aims to establish how tutorial recordings could be used in future learning design for online language learning.

3.1 Research context

As stated in the Introduction, in October 2020, the Open University launched the Open Centre for Languages and Cultures to offer non-accredited short online courses. Mandarin Chinese was one of the five languages on offer. Three courses are offered in each language at beginner level (e.g., Beginners’ Chinese 1, Beginners’ Chinese 2 and Beginners’ Chinese 3). Completion of all three courses takes learners to an exit level of A1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Each course is 16-week long, consisting of 4 hours of study per week. At the time of this study, each course had three cohorts per year with course starting dates in October, February and June. The data in our study comes mainly from two cohorts of the Beginners’ Chinese 1 course: the October 2020 cohort (coded BC1Oct20) and the February 21 cohort (coded BC1Feb21).

3.1.1 Structure and content of Beginners’ Chinese 1

The course is divided into 16 weeks with four revision weeks in weeks 4, 8, 12 and 16. Each of the 12 study weeks includes i) scaffolded teaching of the essentials in reading, writing, speaking and listening in Chinese through a variety of online interactive activities; ii) a quiz section with ten questions to test learners’ understanding; and iii) a consolidation section with cultural information (see Figure 1 above). Some interactive activities are linked to dedicated discussion threads via a course forum for learners to share their answers and reflections. The focus is on independent study, but learners are supported by a specialist learning adviser, with extensive teaching experience in distance education, via the course forum.

Figure 1:

Screengrab of Beginners’ Chinese 1 course website.

3.2 Pre-project preparation

Between November and December 2020, the research project materials were prepared in the following way:

1. As Beginners’ Chinese 1 offers no tutorials, the two researchers (i.e. authors of this paper) designed four tutorials and later recorded with real learners. Tutorial 1’s topic is Greetings and introductions (covering content from weeks 1–5); Tutorial 2 is Describing where you work and live; (weeks 6–9); Tutorial 3 is Dates including birthdays (weeks 10–13); and Tutorial 4 is Family and friends (weeks 14 and 15). Each tutorial includes explanations by the tutor as well as opportunities for students to practice their language skills and interact with the tutor, and with each other via audio and text chat. Gap fill and matching activities, which required students to use the drawing tools on an interactive whiteboard, were also included.

2. A project information sheet was sent to all Beginners’ Chinese 1 learners of the BC1Oct20 cohort and also to staff members, who were learners of Chinese, to recruit learners to attend the planned four synchronous online tutorials and agree to have them recorded.

3. A consent form was sent to seven students and two staff members who were willing to take part. Six of them signed the consent form, and five participated in at least one of the online synchronous tutorials.

One of two researchers delivered and recorded four 40-min tutorials with the volunteer learners. Ideally, the first two recordings should have been produced in November and early December 2020 so that they could be offered at the right points to BC1Oct20 learners to coincide with Weeks 5 and 9 of their study calendars when these topics had been covered. However, due to logistic complications, they were delayed, and the tutorials were delivered and recorded in January and February 2021 using Adobe Connect, an online tutorial system. The recordings of the tutorials captured all visual and auditory input and interaction that occurred during the sessions including tutor and student voice, PowerPoint slides, whiteboard activities and text chat. Although the timing was not in sync with the study calendar for the BC1Oct20 cohort, all four recordings with presentation slides were shared with learners as revision materials (the first two in early February and the other two in mid-February) and learners were invited to give feedback via the course forum. As for the BC1Feb21 cohort, the recordings and tutorial slides were made available to learners at the right intervals (Week 5 for Tutorial 1; Week 9 for Tutorial 2; Week 13 for Tutorial 3; and Week 15 for Tutorial 4) to be in line with the study calendar. Messages were sent to all BC1Feb21 learners informing them of the recordings with a survey link for them to provide feedback. The same message was posted by the learning advisor on the course forum.

3.3 Data collection and analysis

Given that learner agency, intentionality and an awareness of learning (Vitanova et al., 2015) are at the core of vicarious learning processes, it is relevant to explore learner behaviour, intentions and perceptions. In this study we used semi-structured interviews with a stimulated recall element as our main research instrument, and findings were additionally informed by user analytics and results from online surveys and open comments. While the user analytic and survey data provide insights into how learners used the resources, the interviews explore learner behaviour and perception in more depth, with the different parts of the interviews contributing in different ways. The initial sections of each interview were retrospective and allowed learners to reflect on their previous study of Chinese as well as their recent experience with recorded tutorials. The later sections used an introspective stimulated recall methodology by playing back selected sequences from the recordings and thereby aiding participants in “mentally reengaging with the original event” (Gass & Mackey, 2017, p. 14), which helped to uncover some of the cognitive processes involved in listening to tutorial interactions.

The following data sets that were collected between November 2020 and June 2021 informed our findings:

1. Usage of recorded tutorials (data captured by user analytics in the online tutorial system, Adobe Connect)

2. Online surveys

3. Stimulated recall interviews

4.1 Usefulness

Generally, participants found the recordings useful and enjoyable, and there are several mentions that the recordings were a good revision resource, which is how they were intended and used in BC1Feb21 where students were alerted to each tutorial in the relevant revision week. Some participants compared the experience of listening to recorded tutorials with direct interaction, either in terms of rating recordings “second best”, i.e. direct interaction would have been better but the recordings were also useful, or by referring to the experience of interacting vicariously which the recordings afforded them.

I watched all of them. Very useful, very easy to access… [Alice, interview]

I was very happy and I really enjoyed watching them. [Emily, interview]

Useful as a revision but would have preferred to interact rather than watch, especially opportunities to speak Chinese with real people. [Survey]

Very useful for further support and revision. [Survey]

Useful revision. Good to take information in through listening to explanations and hear correct pronunciation. It felt interactive even though we aren’t taking part. [Survey]

I have found it extremely useful as it felt as if I was actually participating to a ‘live’ lesson. [Survey]

4.2 Listening to the teacher versus listening to other learners

In the interviews, we explored the respective parts that the teacher and other learners played in the experience of accessing recordings. All participants found it helpful to listen to the teacher, but perceptions differed as to whether only the teacher was seen to be supporting the learning process, or the other learners were of value, or even essential, too. As an absolute beginner, Emily had a clear preference for recorded tutorials with students. When asked to choose between a teacher-only presentation and a tutorial with students and teacher she responded without hesitation “both students and teacher”, because “when the students were practising, I was trying too”. Janet expressed the same sentiment: “I find the listening really tuning in. And I was even listening to other people speak.” By contrast, Alice, who had studied Chinese before, had a higher level of competence in the language than most of the learners in the recorded session, and, consequently, “didn’t find students doing things useful.” To her, the contributions by other learners were even “distracting from what is being learned.” The negative perception of other learners was, however, not supported by Amy, who, like Alice, had three years previous study of Chinese. Amy is herself a teacher and would have liked the tutorials to be more interactive with more conversations also between students and not just student and teacher: “Sometimes it’s good to have the pupils talking to each other […]. It makes it more like a real conversation.”

4.3 Features participants focused on

We asked participants what they remembered from the tutorials they had watched, and the stimulated recall phase of the interview allowed further, more detailed, insights into what they were focussing on when watching the sessions. “When I listened to the teacher I completely focused” said Sophie, and teacher talk was an important element which all participants referred to. They also focused on specific slides with language explanations or phrases, which they might replay, or take screenshots of.

Participants sometimes noticed errors in learner contributions and took note of any corrective feedback the teacher provided. They also focused on specific structures they were learning or had previously found difficult. They noticed the text chat especially where it was part of an activity, for example when the students in the tutorial were asked to put their answers in the chat. In terms of the writing, they focused on either Pinyin or Chinese characters depending on their level of understanding of these writing systems, for example, Emily and Sophie always read the Pinyin, but Amy went back to check the Chinese characters. Pronunciation was a strong focus for all participants as the tutorial allowed them to look at the written language on the slides while listening to the pronunciation.

The teacher sometimes repeated , it was very helpful. (our emphasis) [Emily, interview]

I really like the fact that the teacher pronounced the words. (our emphasis) [Emily, interview]

I copied the Pinyin. [Sophie, interview]

We will refer to some of these features again when analysing the perceived benefits of recorded tutorials in Section 4.6.

4.4 What content/activities participants wished to have more of

Some of the features participants focused on were also mentioned when we asked the question of what they would have liked more. This applies for example, to the Chinese script and the teacher illustrating how to write characters.

I just wish there were more writing exercises [Emily, interview]

Several learners also referred to wanting more interactivity either in speech or in writing, for example, in the context of asking and answering questions using Chinese characters and Pinyin. Above, we already referred to Amy’s view as a teacher that more interactivity in the live sessions would also benefit listeners. Sophie, too, refers to a teaching sequence where a language point is explained and illustrated but not practised by the students.

It was a pity that the tutor didn’t get the students to practise using it. It was a bit passive, just looking at the slide. [Sophie, Interview]

Interestingly, one survey respondent suggested that the recordings could be enhanced by providing more online interactivity also for listeners. This is worth exploring in future given that online tutorial rooms are being developed to offer more interactivity also to retrospective viewers.

It would be good to be able to use the marker pens and do the activities like the live participants. It feels like you are using your Chinese for real because you are put on the spot if you join in. [Survey]

Two respondents voiced their preference for live attendance over being offered a recording. One of them, Sophie, however, makes a case for recordings as the option that is second best.

So that in addition to what we do in our own time, having to participate and do this live would be best to activate the language. You have to use the language in the limited time span when someone’s asked you a question and you have to answer it there and then. The 2 ^nd best is what we are doing now: I am just looking at it passively because I’m not having to participate because I’m not a participant. But it’s good for me to review it and because of the format you see it through the eyes of a participant. So it made me more aware of my weaknesses. [Sophie, Interview]

It is clear from Sophie’s comment that indirect participation in recorded tutorials, although not as beneficial for her as attending live because she had been learning Chinese for some years, does bring benefits of consolidating knowledge and realising what she needed to work on. This echoes previous research findings that recordings provide opportunities for reflection and consolidation (Pleines, 2020a, 2020b).

One interview participant, Emily, responded that she wanted more recorded tutorials. She would also be happy with longer recordings, but others, like Amy, felt their concentration was waning towards the end of the one-hour recorded session.

4.5 Challenges

The recordings were easy to access but the main challenge when recording the tutorials and when listening afterwards was associated with audio quality. Tutorial 1, in particular, was badly affected by echo, and the teacher had to spend time sorting out students’ audio issues while the recording was ongoing, which was annoying for listeners. This may have had a negative impact on the project overall and put some students off wanting to watch subsequent recordings. There were a number of comments on this issue.

The echo made this very difficult to follow. [Survey]

It was helpful […], unfortunately, is was marred by the echo. [Survey]

Where learners discussed challenges related to learning Chinese, recordings were seen as helpful in that they provided choices to suit different needs (e.g. Pinyin or Chinese script; listening once or repeatedly). However, learners missed the opportunity for direct feedback, which a tutor could have provided in a live session.

4.6 Perceived benefits

The final aspect we explored in our study relates to learners’ perceived benefits in using tutorial recordings. A close reading of our data brought out aspects which learners mentioned repeatedly and which point to ways in which the recordings may have benefited their learning.

These include:

1. using imagination and participating vicariously

2. opportunities to replay and pause the recording

3. learning and consolidating words and phrases

4. reinforcing character learning and pronunciation

5. understanding language points learners had struggled with previously

6. noticing

7. building confidence

8. experiencing ‘real interaction’

9. feeling connected to other students

Below, we will elaborate on each point.

5.1 What use do learners make of the resource?

In comparison with the CB1Oct20 cohort, more learners of the CB1Feb21 cohort accessed the recordings when they were offered in conjunction with the study planner. The differences between viewing figures in the two cohorts suggest to us that these resources benefited from being offered in sync with the revision weeks because they were designed as revision materials for consolidation. The fact that three learners worked with all four tutorials, and one worked with three tutorials indicates that these learners, at least, found the recorded tutorials useful, which is further confirmed by survey results. Interestingly, a few learners from higher level courses (Beginners Chinese 2 and 3) also viewed the recordings, which further suggests that the resources, although designed for absolute beginners, can be used as revision and consolidation materials for higher level courses also, especially given the absence of live tutorials. Participants also explicitly commented that the tutorials were useful as a revision resource. This is in line with the previous research finding that recordings provide opportunities for reflection and consolidation (Pleines, 2020a, 2020b; Rabold et al., 2008).

Although we were delighted to note that survey respondents typically watched the whole of the recording, this may, of course, be because learners who only accessed parts of the recording did not then complete the survey – despite the fact that we had made it clear that we were interested in responses also from learners who had not viewed the whole tutorial. One of the main advantages associated with working with a recording is that viewers can focus on the parts they are most interested in and skip others, and they can replay or pause whenever necessary to relisten, repeat or respond to what they are hearing. However, we have insufficient evidence from the survey data regarding the extent to which learners actually did this. Interview participants, however, did report pausing and relistening, and thereby, like the learners in Fernández-Dobao’s study (2016), creating spaces for themselves to process and manipulate the language they are hearing. While learners involved in direct interaction are under pressure to respond, listeners have more time to internalise language and thereby develop their linguistic competence, even more so if there is the opportunity to listen more than once.

Technical issues sometimes affected viewing time, for example, two students with long viewing times cited internet buffering problems as a reason. Respondents also discussed the echo and bad audio quality in parts of the recordings, which made the tutorials less useful to them. The first tutorial, in particular, started with audio issues which distracted from learning, and this is reflected in slightly lower ratings for this tutorial. We have since re-recorded this session for use with future cohorts and continue to monitor how the recordings are being used. Bearing in mind these technical challenges to distance teachers and learners (Stickler, 2022; White, 2014), our recommendation for teachers who want to use recorded sessions with their students would be to conduct a trial session and/or allow sufficient time before starting the tutorial to ensure good audio quality for listeners.

5.2 What elements do learners focus on?

While working with the recordings, learners focused on teacher talk, PowerPoint slides, and also on the interactivity, especially when corrective feedback was provided or when participating vicariously themselves. In terms of linguistic features, their focus was on pronunciation, specific grammatical structures as well as the vocabulary and phrases presented in the sessions. Linking the written script to the spoken sound was important to them, and they turned their detailed attention to Chinese characters, if they felt they were learning from them, or, alternatively to Pinyin, if they were not ready for the Chinese characters yet. This once again demonstrates that the lack of obvious correlation between the pronunciation (Pinyin) and the written script (characters) is challenging at the beginners’ level as documented in the literature (Hu, 2010; Jongman et al., 2006; Kan et al., 2018; Liang & van Heuven, 2007; Xiao, 2010), and it suggests that the recorded tutorials can help to address this challenge. Depending on the type of activity, participants in our study also attended to specific slides providing vocabulary and useful expressions, with the video showing the teacher speaking in Chinese or details of the spoken interactions. Additional elements such as the text chat were noted especially when it became part of the learning.

5.3 What perceived benefits, if any, do learners report?

Perceived benefits centre around the idea that the tutorial recordings are a fundamentally different resource from anything else that is offered on the course, or in independent online language learning more generally. Participants felt they were listening to real speakers in real time and thought the explanations helped them understand material they had previously not mastered and to consolidate their learning. They appreciated the pronunciation practice as well as the focus on Chinese writing and benefited from participating vicariously in the interactions they witnessed (Fernández Dobao, 2016; Ohta, 2001). The stimulated recall sequences in the interviews revealed how participants noticed specific structures and attended to errors in other students’ speech as well as comparing learners’ pronunciation with the teacher’s and with their own. There were tensions around the perceived usefulness of listening to other learners, and listeners were aware of the language level of their fellow learners, whose interactions they were witnessing, in comparison to their own competence. Some participants, especially those who had learnt Chinese previously, felt the exercises with learner participation were repetitive and provided flawed input and believed that only the teacher’s explanation was helpful for their progress. By contrast, notably those who were absolute beginners, were very clear that they needed to listen to both the teacher and learners’ utterances. Several interview participants reported increased confidence and a feeling of connectedness otherwise absent from the course.

Participants’ different perceptions of what benefits their learning poses a challenge for learning design as there is clearly a trade-off between the length of tutorials and the level of interactivity in a session. While a teacher-produced screencast without interaction can cover the same content in less time, the interactive sequences scaffold learning by demonstrating approximations of a teacher’s expert performance; the latter allow for empathic responses through alignment with other learners and provide opportunities for vicarious participation, practice and consolidation. Clear signposting at the beginning of a recorded tutorial can help listeners make their own choices how they want to work with the resource to benefit their learning.