Slavery in Achaemenid-Period Babylonia: The Social World of Rībat, Son of Bēl-erība
-
Rhyne King
Abstract
This paper argues for a historically grounded view of slavery in Achaemenid-period Babylonia by examining the life of one particular individual, Rībat son of Bēl-erība, an ardu of the Murašû family (whose archive spans c. 454–404 BCE). In contrast to other studies which focus on the terminology or legal aspects of slavery, we examine the lived experience of Rībat. We do this in two ways. First, we study all of Rībat’s attested business ventures and demonstrate that, although Rībat occasionally acted under the direct orders of his masters, he more often pursued activities ancillary to those of the core Murašû business. Secondly, we use social network analysis of over 700 Murašû texts to demonstrate that, although Rībat was crucial in linking distinct individuals to the Murašû business, he lay outside his masters’ group of core associates. We then compare Rībat’s social position to that of other known Murašû subordinates to argue that Rībat’s experience was representative of that of other Murašû subordinates. We conclude by arguing for more social-historical studies of Babylonian servitude in the future.
Funding source: National Science Foundation
Award Identifier / Grant number: ACI-1450455
Funding source: Mellon/ACLS Dissertation Completion Fellowship
Funding source: Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
Award Identifier / Grant number: P30311
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Sandra Schloen and Miller Prosser of the OCHRE Data Service at the University of Chicago for their technical assistance. Michele Gama Sosa, Yuval Levavi, and Ziting Wang assisted in building the OCHRE database used for this research. The authors also thank the reviewers for their comments; all errors remain solely the authors’.
-
Research funding: The research presented in this article was funded in part by National Science Foundation (grant number ACI-1450455). Rhyne King held a Mellon/ACLS Dissertation Completion Fellowship while writing this paper. Reinhard Pirngruber’s research for this article took place under the auspices of the Austrian Science Fund’s project P30311, “Astronomical Diaries Digital.”
The following table lists every individual whose betweenness centrality rank and/or eigenvector centrality rank is discussed in the article. This table includes their betweenness centrality rank as a percentage of the rank of the highest individual (Enlil-šum-iddin/Murašû). Enlil-šum-iddin’s centrality rank is 875,778.0; the percentage is recorded here for the ease of the reader. The table also includes the eigenvector centrality score of each node. Eigenvector centrality is always between 0 and 1.
| Name | Betweenness centrality rank | Betweenness centrality as percentage of the score of rank 1 | Eigenvector centrality rank | Eigenvector centrality score |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Enlil-šum-iddin/Murašû | 1 | 100 | 1 | 1 |
| Rēmūt-Ninurta/Murašû | 2 | 53.4 | 4 | 0.667 |
| Ninurta-ab-uṣur/Enlil-šum-iddin | 3 | 20.5 | 5 | 0.627 |
| Aqara/Iddinna | 4 | 19.2 | 2 | 0.740 |
| Rībat/Bēl-erība | 5 | 13.8 | 41 | 0.231 |
| Erīb-Enlil/Enlil-bānâ | 6 | 13.7 | 3 | 0.703 |
| Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil | 20 | 2.7 | 100 | 0.135 |
| Enlil-hatin/Murašû | 21 | 2.6 | 139 | 0.109 |
| Bēl-ab-uṣur/Bēl-bullissu | 24 | 2.4 | 482 | 0.056 |
| Tirikāmu | 26 | 2.2 | 200 | 0.090 |
| Udarna’/Rahīm-il | 30 | 2.0 | 107 | 0.128 |
| Ninurta-mutīr-gimilli/Nabû-ahhē-iddin | 31 | 2.0 | 28 | 0.273 |
| Iddin-Enlil/Bēlšunu | 34 | 1.9 | 500 | 0.055 |
| Ninurta-uballiṭ/Mušēzib | 41 | 1.6 | 614 | 0.051 |
| Ahušunu/Aplā | 44 | 1.5 | 130 | 0.117 |
| Ninurta-iddin/Mutīr-gimilli | 45 | 1.5 | 126 | 0.119 |
| Enlil-suppē-muhur | 56 | 1.0 | 79 | 0.153 |
| Erīb-Enlil/Ša-pî-kalbi | 70 | 0.1 | 183 | 0.094 |
Catalogue
The tables below collect all texts mentioning the activities of Rībat, son of Bēl-erība, known to us in chronological order, and both include a short summary of each text. The first table lists those texts in which Rībat acted as business principal, irrespective of whether he was active in the service of Enlil-šum-iddin or Rēmūt-Ninurta, or seemingly upon his own initiative. The second table gathers those instances in which ardus are identified by reference to Rībat, who otherwise plays no role in the transaction.
| Text | Date (Year) | Summary | Scribe |
|---|---|---|---|
| BE 9 43 | Art35 | Dialogue contract concerning brewing equipment, ingredients and brewing work in exchange for beer | Itti-Enlil-balāṭu/Ninurta-nāṣir |
| BE 9 52 | Art36 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning water rights and fields held by Enlil-šum-iddin | Ninurta-kēšir/Arad-Enlil |
| IMT 98 | Art39 | Labor contract: chopping wood and delivery of 500 beams; penalty clause: 100 blows and 10 minas of silver | Ninurta-nāṣir/Arad-Enlil |
| EE 14 | Art40 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning water rights, fields and equipment held by Enlil-šum-iddin | Ninurta-nāṣir/Arad-Enlil |
| EE 15 | Art40 | Duplicate of EE 14 | |
| IMT 39 | Art40 | Receipt of 45 vats of beer paid in lieu of dates owed to Rībat | Ninurta-ab-uṣur/Enlil-šumu-iddin |
| PBS 2/1 24 | DarII01 | Receipt: “gift” (nidintu) and ilku on his one-fifth (u’du)-share in a bow property paid by Rībat to the responsible officials | Rēme-šukun and Šum-iddin, sons of Šamaš-ušallim |
| BE 10 54 | DarII01 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning fishing grounds from Enlil-šum-iddin | Ninurta-ab-uṣur/Enlil-šumu-iddin |
| PBS 2/1 12 | DarII[01] | Promissory note: 43 kurru of dates, specified as imittu-payment, owed to Rībat | Enlil-uballiṭ/Itti-Ninurta-īnīya |
| PBS 2/1 175 | DarII01 | Rental agreement concerning i.a. crown land | Enlil-uballiṭ/Itti-Ninurta-īnīya |
| PBS 2/1 44 | DarII02 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning seeds and equipment | Bēltu-šubši/Rēme-šukun |
| PBS 2/1 46 | DarII02 | Receipt: first installment of the “gift” (nidintu) on his one-fifth (u’du)-share in a bow property held by Rībat paid by Mušēzib, ardu of Rībat to the responsible officials | Aqar-aplu/Kināya |
| PBS 2/1 49 | DarII02 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning seeds and equipment | Bēltu-šubši/Rēme-šukun |
| PBS 2/1 53 | DarII02 | Receipt: Purchase of 4 kurrus of dates by Rībat (for 8 shekel of silver) | Lâbâši/Nādin |
| IMT 59 | DarII02 | Receipt: 60 kurru of barley | Bēlšunu/[…] |
| BE 10 68 | DarII03 | Purchase of 40 kurrus of dates by Rībat (stipulated as promissory note) | Ninurta-erība/Ardiya |
| BE 10 78 | DarII03 | Receipt: second installment of the “gift” (nidintu) on his one-fifth (u’du)-share in a bow property held by Rībat and his colleagues paid by Ninurta-uballiṭ/Mušēzib | Rēmūt-Ninurta/Bēlšunu |
| BE 10 81 | DarII03 | Receipt: imittu payment of Rēmūt-Ninurta | Ninurta-ab-uṣur/Enlil-šumu-iddin |
| PBS 2/1 79 | DarII03 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning seeds and equipment | […]/Rēme-šukun |
| TuM 2/3 146 | DarII03 | Rental agreement (ana errešūtu u šutapūtu) concerning bow land | ?? |
| PBS 2/1 83 | DarII04 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning water rights and fields held by Rēmūt-Ninurta | Ninurta-ab-uṣur/Enlil-šumu-iddin |
| PBS 2/1 81 | DarII04 | Rental agreement ana nukkaribūti concerning bow land of Ninurta-ēṭir/Ubār and Rībat | Nidinti-Enlil/Iqīša |
| PBS 2/1 82 | DarII04 | Promissory note concerning 10 kurru of dates | Ahušunu/Aplāya |
| PBS 2/1 85 | DarII04 | Transfer of debtors before Rībat | Enlil-apla-uṣur/Šum-iddin |
| BE 10 87 | DarII04 | Promissory note concerning 10 kurru of wheat | Ahušunu/Aplāya |
| PBS 2/1 92 | DarII04 | Receipt: Payment of ilku for property at the disposal of Rībat by Ninurta-uballiṭ/Mušēzib | Ninurta-ēṭir/Rēme-šukun |
| IMT 95 | DarII04 | Promissory note concerning 10 kurru of wheat | Ninurta-nādin-šumi/Rēme-šukun |
| EE 23 | DarII05 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning fields of Rēmūt-Ninurta; concluded by Rībat on behalf of his master - Delivery of rent in Rībat’s mašīhu |
[…] |
| TuM 2/3 187 | DarII05 | Receipt: ilku and further obligations, total two minas of silver, paid by Rībat to the responsible šaknu | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| EE 91 | DarII05 | Labor contract: tillage of soil in the bow land (bīt qašti) of Rēmūt-Ninurta. Penalty clause: 100 blows, shearing of beard, confinement in the bīt kīli under supervision of Rībat |
Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 106 | DarII05 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning crown land (bīt nakkandi) held by Rēmūt-Ninurta | Ninurta-ab-uṣur/Enlil-šumu-iddin |
| PBS 2/1 115 | DarII05 | Rental agreement ana nukkaribūti concerning bow land of Rībat | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| BE 10 99 | DarII05 | Rental agreement: agricultural land in the hadru of the carpenters; lessor: Balāṭu/Ṣiha’ | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 111 | DarII05 | Dialogue contract: custody of fishing grounds against theft | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 112 | DarII05 | Dialogue contract: custody of fishing grounds against theft | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 208 | DarII05 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning fishing equipment | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 108 | DarII05 | Promissory note concerning 10 kurru of barley (specified as capital, qaqqadu) owed to Rībat | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 109 | DarII05 | Promissory note concerning 100 kurru of dates and 100 kurru of barley owed to Rībat | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| BE 10 104 | DarII05 | Promissory note concerning 1;2.3 barley owed to Rībat | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 123 | DarII06 | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning crown land (bīt nakkandi) held by Rībat | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 124 | DarII06 | Rental agreement concerning crown land (uzbara) held by Rībat | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| BE 10 111 | DarII06 | Receipt: sūtu, half a mina of silver and additional deliveries, paid by Rībat to the responsible šaknu | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| BE 10 115 | DarII06 | Receipt: ilku and further obligations, total two minas of silver, paid by Rībat to the responsible šaknu | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 131 | DarII06 | Promissory note: 21 vats of beer to be delivered in lieu of 21 kurru of dates owed to Rībat | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| JCS 53 5 | DarII06 | Herd inspection: 575 sheep and goats of Rībat are rented by the herdsman Abda’, ardu of Rībat | – |
| PBS 2/1 118 | DarII06 | Herd inspection: 141 sheep and goats of Rībat are rented by the herdsman Bēl-ēṭir | – |
| BE 10 105 | DarII06 | Herd inspection: 166 sheep and goats of Rībat are rented by the herdsman Amurru-upahhir, ardu of Rībat | – |
| BE 10 106 | DarII06 | Herd inspection: 109 sheep and goats of Rībat are rented by the herdsman Zabīd-Nanāya | – |
| BE 10 123 | DarII07 | Receipt: Rībat settles the rent obligations of Rēmūt-Ninurta with the mār bīti of the mašennu-official Harrimunnatu | Bēl-ab-uṣur/Bēl-ibni |
| PBS 2/1 226 | DarII07 | Purchase of 40 kurrus of dates by Rībat (for two minas of silver) | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| IMT 48 + PBS 2/1 143 | DarII09 | Receipt: Rībat settles the rent obligations of Rēmūt-Ninurta | Ninurta-Bēl-ahhēšu/Upahhir-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 154 | DarIIxx | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning seeds and equipment | Bēltu-šubši/Rēme-šukun |
| PBS 2/1 155 | DarIIxx | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning seeds and equipment | Bēltu-šubši/Rēme-šukun |
| PBS 2/1 157 | DarIIxx | Dialogue contract: Rental agreement concerning seeds and equipment | Bēltu-šubši/Rēme-šukun |
| IMT 60 | DarIIxx | Receipt: silver | […] |
| EE 75 | DarIIxx | Promissory note concerning 50 kurru of dates | […] |
| EE 105 | DarIIxx | Dialogue contract concerning the release of prisoners | […] |
Passive role: as master of an ardu
| BE 9 90 | Art 41 | Receipt: field harvest | Taqīš-Gula/Iddin-Enlil |
| PBS 2/1 56 | DarII02 | [Dialogue contract?]: Rental agreement concerning fields and seed | Rēme-šukun/Šamaš-ah-iddin |
| PBS 2/1 69 | DarII03 | Promissory note concerning 1 kurru of wheat | Nidinti-Enlil/Iqīša |
| PBS 2/1 129 | DarII06 | Promissory note concerning 10 kurru of barley | Ninurta-mīt-uballiṭ/Aplāya |
| IMT 32 | DarIIxx | Rental agreement concerning fields | […] |
References
Alstola, T., S. Zaia, A. Sahala, H. Jauhiainen, S. Svärd, and K. Lindén. 2019. “Aššur and His Friends: A Statistical Analysis of Neo-Assyrian Texts.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 71: 159–80, https://doi.org/10.1086/703859.Suche in Google Scholar
Baker, H. D. 2001. “Degrees of Freedom: Slavery in Mid-First Millennium BC Babylonia.” World Archaeology 33 (1): 18–26, https://doi.org/10.1080/00438240120047609.Suche in Google Scholar
Baker, H. D. 2008. “Babylon in 484 BC: The Excavated Archival Texts as a Source for Urban History.” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 98: 100–16, https://doi.org/10.1515/za-2008-0006.Suche in Google Scholar
Baker, H. D. 2017. “Slavery and Personhood in the Neo-Assyrian Empire”. In: On Human Bondage: After Slavery and Social Death. edited by J, Bodel, and W, Scheidel, 15–30. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781119162544.ch1Suche in Google Scholar
Bastian, M., Heymann, S., and Jacomy, M. 2009. “Gephi: An Open Source Software for Exploring and Manipulating Networks.” International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media. Available at: https://gephi.org/publications/gephi-bastian-feb09.pdf.10.1609/icwsm.v3i1.13937Suche in Google Scholar
Bodel, J., and W, Scheidel, eds. 2017. On Human Bondage: After Slavery and Social Death. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781119162544Suche in Google Scholar
Bonacich, P. 2007. “Some Unique Properties of Eigenvector Centrality.” Social Networks 29: 555–64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2007.04.002.Suche in Google Scholar
Bregstein, L. 1993. Seal Use in Fifth Century B.C. Nippur, Iraq: A Study of Seal Selection and Sealing Practices in the Murašû Archive. PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania.Suche in Google Scholar
Briant, P. 1998. “Ethno-classe dominante et populations soumises dans l’Empire achéménide: le cas d’Égypte.” In Method and Theory (Achaemenid History 3), edited by H. Sancisi-Werdeenburg, and A. Kuhrt, 137–74. Leiden: NINO.Suche in Google Scholar
Brown, V. 2009. “Social Death and Political Life in the Study of Slavery.” American Historical Review 114/5: 1231–49, https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr.114.5.1231.Suche in Google Scholar
Cardascia, G. 1951. Les archives du Murašû, une famille d’hommes d’affaires de Babylonie à l’époque perse (455–403 av. J.-C.). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, .Suche in Google Scholar
Clay, A. T. 1904. Business Documents of Murashû Sons of Nippur Dated in the Reign of Darius II. Philadelphia: Department of Archaeology and Palaeontology of the University of Pennsylvania.Suche in Google Scholar
Clay, A. T. 1912. Business Documents of Murashu Sons of Nippur dated in the Reign of Darius II. Philadelphia: The University Museum.Suche in Google Scholar
Clay, A. T., and H. V., Hilprecht. 1898. Business Documents of Murashû Sons of Nippur Dated in the Reign of Artaxerxes I. Philadelphia: Department of Archaeology and Palaeontology of the University of Pennsylvania.10.9783/9781512816877Suche in Google Scholar
Culbertson, L. ed. (2011). Slaves and Households in the Near East (OIS 7). Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.Suche in Google Scholar
Dandamaev, M. 1984. Slavery in Babylonia, from Nabopolassar to Alexander the Great, 626–331 BC. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. (reprint 2010).Suche in Google Scholar
Donbaz, V., and M, Stolper. 1997. Istanbul Murašû Texts. In PIHANS 79. Istanbul: NINO.Suche in Google Scholar
Freeman, L. C. 1978/79. “Centrality in Social Networks: Conceptual Clarification.” Social Networks 1: 215–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(78)90021-7.Suche in Google Scholar
Golbeck, J. 2013. Analyzing the Social Web. Waldham: Morgan Kaufmann.Suche in Google Scholar
Gordin, S., and R. Zadok. 2016. “The Illil-Mukīn-Apli Dossier: A Case Study from the Murašû Archive in the Context of Taxation.” Aula Orientalis 26: 37–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcm.2016.02.008.Suche in Google Scholar
Hackl, J. 2013. “Frau Weintraube, Frau Heuschrecke und Frau Gut – Untersuchungen zu den babylonischen Namen von Sklavinnen in neubabylonischer und persischer Zeit.” Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 103: 121–87.Suche in Google Scholar
Hanneman, R. A., and M, Riddle 2011. “Concepts and Measures for Basic Network Analysis.” In: The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis, edited by J, Scott, and P. J., Carrington. 340–69. Los Angeles: SAGE.10.4135/9781446294413.n24Suche in Google Scholar
Harper, K. 2011. Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511973451Suche in Google Scholar
Head, R. 2010. The Business Activities of Neo-Babylonian Private “Slaves” and the Problem of “Peculium”. PhD diss., Johns Hopkins University.Suche in Google Scholar
Joannès, F. 1987. “Fragments de Nippur d’epoque Neo-Babylonienne.” Anatolica 14: 107–30.Suche in Google Scholar
Jursa, M. 2005. Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Documents: Typology Contents and Archives (GMTR 1). Münster: Ugarit-Verlag.Suche in Google Scholar
Jursa, M. 2010. Aspects of the Economic History of Babylonia in the First Millennium BC. Economic Geography, Economic Mentalities, Agriculture, the Use of Money and the Problem of Economic Growth. With contributions by J. Hackl, B. Janković, K. Kleber, E. E. Payne, C. Waerzeggers, and M. Weszeli (AOAT 377). Münster: Ugarit-Verlag.Suche in Google Scholar
Jursa, M. 2014. “Factor Markets in Babylonia from the Late Seventh to the Third Century BCE.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 572: 173–202, https://doi.org/10.1163/15685209-12341346.Suche in Google Scholar
Jursa, M., and M, Stolper. 2007. From the Tattannu-Archive Fragment. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 97: 243–81.Suche in Google Scholar
Kessler, K. 2004. “Urukäische Familien versus babylonische Familien. Die Namengebung in Uruk, die Degradierung der Kulte von Eanna und der Aufstieg des Gottes Anu.” Altorientalische Forschungen 31: 237–62, https://doi.org/10.1524/aofo.2004.31.2.237.Suche in Google Scholar
Kleber, K. 2011. “Neither Slave nor Truly Free: The Status of the Dependents of Babylonian Temple Households.” In: Slaves and Households in the Near East (OIS 7). edited by L, Culbertson, 101–11. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.Suche in Google Scholar
Kleber, K. 2018. “Dependent Labor and Status in the Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Periods.Münster In: What’s in a Name? Terminology Related to Work Force and Job Categories in the Ancient Near East (AOAT 44), 441–65. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag.Suche in Google Scholar
Lewis, D. M. 2017. Orlando Patterson, Property, and Ancient Slavery: The Definitional Problem Revisited.” In: On Human Bondage. After Slavery and Social Death, edited by J, Bodel, and W, Scheidel. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781119162544.ch2Suche in Google Scholar
Lewis, D. M. 2018. Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c. 800–146 BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oso/9780198769941.001.0001Suche in Google Scholar
Miller, J. C. 2012. The Problem of Slavery as History: A Global Approach. New Haven: Yale University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Miller, J. C. 2017. “Epilogue. Appreciation and Response: Historical Paths Forward from Here.” Journal of Global Slavery 2: 337–77, https://doi.org/10.1163/2405836x-00203006.Suche in Google Scholar
Patterson, O. 1982. Slavery and Social Death. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Pirngruber, R. 2017. The Economy of Late Achaemenid and Seleucid Babylonia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/9781316226766Suche in Google Scholar
Pirngruber, R. 2020. “The Akkadian Documents.” In: Aršāma and Egypt: The Bodleian Letters in Contexts, Vol. 1. edited by C, Tuplin, and J, Ma, 300–39. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Prell, C. 2012. Social Network Analysis: History, Theory, and Methodology. Los Angeles: SAGE.Suche in Google Scholar
Ragen, A. 2006. The Neo-Babylonian širku: A Social History. PhD diss., Harvard University.Suche in Google Scholar
Richardson, S. 2019. “Walking Capital. The Economic Function and Social Location of Babylonian Servitude.” Journal of Global Slavery 4: 285–342, https://doi.org/10.1163/2405836x-00402009.Suche in Google Scholar
Saller, R. P. 1994. Patriarchy, Property, and Death in the Roman Family. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511582998Suche in Google Scholar
Schloen, J. D., and Schloen, S. R. 2012. OCHRE: An Online Cultural and Historical Research Environment. Winona: Eisenbrauns.Suche in Google Scholar
Scott, J. 2000. Social Network Analysis: A Handbook, 2nd ed. Los Angeles: SAGE.Suche in Google Scholar
Seire, M., and C, Waerzeggers eds. 2018. Xerxes and Babylonia. The Cuneiform Evidence (OLA 277). Leuven: Peeters.10.2307/j.ctv1q26v46Suche in Google Scholar
Sonnevelt, R. 2021. “Rībat’s Dossier from Nippur – A Diplomatic Study of Aramaic Epigraphs on Cuneiform Tablets.” Archiv für Orientforschung 54: 126–8.Suche in Google Scholar
Stolper, M. W. 1985. Entrepreneurs and Empire. The Murašû Archive, the Murašû Firm, and Persian Rule in Babylonia (PIHANS 54). Istanbul: NINO.Suche in Google Scholar
Stolper, M. W. 1995. “The Babylonian Enterprise of Belesys.” In: Dans les pas des Dix-Mille (Pallas 43), 217–38. Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail.10.3406/palla.1995.1371Suche in Google Scholar
Stolper, M. W. 2001. “Fifth Century Nippur: Texts from the Murašûs and their Surroundings.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 53: 83–132, https://doi.org/10.2307/1359979.Suche in Google Scholar
Stolper, M. W. 2004. “The Kasr Texts, the Rich Collection, the Bellino Copies and the Grotefend Nachlass.” In: Assyria and Beyond. Studies Presented to Mogens T. Larsen (PIHANS 100), 511–49. Leiden: NINO.Suche in Google Scholar
Stolper, M. W. 2007. “Kasr Texts: Excavated – but not in Berlin.” In: Roth, M., and Biggs, R. (Eds.), Studies Presented to R. D. Biggs, June 4 2004, 243–83. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.Suche in Google Scholar
Tavernier, J. 2007. “Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (Ca. 550-330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords (OLA 158).” In: Attested in Non-Iranian Texts. Leuven: Peeters.Suche in Google Scholar
Tenney, J. S. 2011. Life at the Bottom of Babylonian Society: Servile Laborers at Nippur in the 14th and 13th Centuries. B.C. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/ej.9789004206892.i-268Suche in Google Scholar
Van Driel, G. 1989. “The Murašûs in Context.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 32: 203–29, https://doi.org/10.2307/3631976.Suche in Google Scholar
Van Driel, G. 2002. Elusive Silver. In: Search for a Role for a Market in an Agrarian Environment. Aspects of Mesopotamia’s Society (PIHANS 95). Istanbul: NINO.Suche in Google Scholar
Waerzeggers, C. 2003/04. “The Babylonian Revolts against Xerxes and the ‘End of Archives.” Archiv für Orientforschung 50: 150–73.Suche in Google Scholar
Waerzeggers, C. 2014. “Social Network Analysis of Cuneiform Archives - A New Approach.” In: Documentary Sources in Ancient Near Eastern and Greco-Roman Economic History: Methodology and Practice. edited by H. D., Baker, and M, Jursa, 207–33. Philadelphia and Oxford: Oxbow.10.2307/j.ctvh1dn9m.14Suche in Google Scholar
Wagner, A., Y. Levavi, S. Kedar, K. Abraham, Y. Cohen, and R. Zadok. 2013. “Quantitative Social Network Analysis (SNA) and the Study of Cuneiform Archives: A Test-Case Based on the Murašû Archive.” Akkadica 134: 117–34.Suche in Google Scholar
Wunsch, C. 2011. “Lemma ‘Sklave, Sklaverei. D. Neubabylonisch’.” RlA 12: 572–4.Suche in Google Scholar
Wunsch, C., and F. R. Magdalene. 2012. “A Slave Is not Supposed to Wear Such a Garment.” Kaskal 9: 99–120.Suche in Google Scholar
Wunsch, C., and F. R. Magdalene. 2014. “Freedom and Dependency: Neo-Babylonian Manumission Documents with Oblation and Service Obligation.” In Extraction and Control: Studies in Honor of Matthew W. Stolper (SAOC 68), edited by M. Kozuh, W, Henkelman, C. Jones, and C. Woods, 337–46. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.Suche in Google Scholar
Zadok, R. 1985. Geographical Names According to New- and Late-Babylonian Texts. Wiesbaden: L. Reichert.Suche in Google Scholar
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Princely Employments in the Reign of Shulgi
- The Political History of Megiddo in the Early Iron Age and the Ambiguities of Evidence
- Heads and Beds: On the Origin of the Akkadian Term for Eunuch or Courtier
- Slavery in Achaemenid-Period Babylonia: The Social World of Rībat, Son of Bēl-erība
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Princely Employments in the Reign of Shulgi
- The Political History of Megiddo in the Early Iron Age and the Ambiguities of Evidence
- Heads and Beds: On the Origin of the Akkadian Term for Eunuch or Courtier
- Slavery in Achaemenid-Period Babylonia: The Social World of Rībat, Son of Bēl-erība
