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Chinese teenagers’ perceptions of vitality of Hokkien Chinese in Penang, Malaysia

  • Su-Hie Ting EMAIL logo and Jonathan Zie-Ming Teng
Published/Copyright: August 13, 2021
International Journal of the Sociology of Language
From the journal International Journal of the Sociology of Language Volume 2021 Issue 272

Abstract

The study assessed Chinese teenagers’ perceptions of vitality of Hokkien Chinese in Penang using the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS). The survey involved 156 students aged 13–19 (100 Hokkien; 56 non-Hokkien Chinese). The results showed that the vitality of Hokkien in Penang is at EGIDS Level 6b (Threatened). The identity function of Hokkien in Penang is that of a home language, and children are the youngest generation of Hokkien speakers. The stability of the diglossic situation between Hokkien and Mandarin has been disrupted due to Mandarin encroaching into oral domains of language use, particularly the friendship and education domains. Both Hokkien and non-Hokkien teenagers have positive attitudes towards Hokkien. Chinese educational background is the only social factor that makes a significant difference in Hokkien usage among the Chinese teenagers, while gender, socio-economic status and language attitudes have no significant effect on Hokkien usage. In view of this, institutional support for Mandarin is the most important structural factor that has a clear, but adverse, impact on Hokkien usage. Hokkien cannot compete with the functions of Mandarin as a marker of Chinese identity in Malaysia, a gateway to career and business opportunities, and a global language within the Chinese diaspora.

Keywords: Chinese; Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS); Hokkien; language attitudes; language shift; vitality
Corresponding author: Su-Hie Ting, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Malaysia, E-mail:

Funding source: Ministry of Education, Malaysia

Award Identifier / Grant number: FRGS/SS09(05)/1296/2015(13)

  1. Research funding: This study is funded by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia via the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), Grant no. FRGS/SS09(05)/1296/2015(13).

Appendix A: EGIDS levels for vitality of languages (Lewis and Simons 2010)

Level Label Description
0 International The language is widely used between nations in trade, knowledge exchange and international policy.
1 National The language is used in education, work, mass media and government at the national level.
2 Provincial The language is used in education, work, mass media and government within major administrative subdivisions of a nation.
3 Wider Communication The language is used in work and mass media without official status to transcend language differences across a region.
4 Educational The language is in vigorous use, with standardisation and literature being sustained through a widespread system of institutionally supported education.
5 Developing The language is in vigorous use, with literature in a standardised form being used by some though this is not yet widespread or sustainable.
6a Vigorous The language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable.
6b Threatened The language is used for face-to-face communication within all generations, but is losing users.
7 Shifting The child-bearing generation can use the language among themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children.
8a Moribund The only remaining active users of the language are members of the grandparent generation and older.
8b Nearly Extinct The only remaining users of the language are members of the grandparent generation or older who have little opportunity to use the language.
9 Dormant The language serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency.
10 Extinct The language is no longer used and no one retains a sense of ethnic identity associated with the language.

Appendix B: Improved questionnaire on attitudes to Hokkien and Mandarin

Factors Items Component of language attitudes
Factor 1: Prestige of Hokkien speakers and features of Hokkien language 1. I think Hokkien is an important language because it is widely used. Cognitive
2. I think Hokkien is an important language because Hokkien speakers are educated and rich. Cognitive
3. I think Hokkien is an important language because there are a lot of Hokkien speakers. Cognitive
4. I think Hokkien is an important language because Hokkien speakers are a politically powerful group. Cognitive
5. I think Hokkien is a more flowery language than Mandarin. Cognitive
6. I think feelings and emotions can be expressed more effectively in Hokkien than in Mandarin. Cognitive
7. I think specialised technical subjects can be expressed more effectively in Hokkien than in Mandarin. Cognitive
8. I feel superior to others when I speak Hokkien. Affective
Factor 2: Usefulness of Mandarin 9. My ability to speak Mandarin assures me in getting a better job. Cognitive
10. My ability to speak Mandarin assures my success in the future. Cognitive
11. My ability to speak Mandarin assures my success in my studies. Cognitive
12. I prefer to teach my children in Mandarin compared to Hokkien, so that they can have a better future. Affective
13. I prefer to teach my children in Mandarin compared to Hokkien, so that they can excel in their studies. Affective
Factor 3: Value of Hokkien 14. My ability to speak Hokkien assures me in getting a better job. Cognitive
15. Speaking Hokkien is part of me as it symbolises my culture, heritage and identity. Affective
16. Speaking Hokkien is part of me as I am born as a Hokkien. Affective
17. I speak Hokkien to show that we belong to the same group. Affective

  1. The behavioural component of language attitudes is measured using items on language choice in relevant domains of language use.

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Received: 2020-05-27
Accepted: 2021-01-18
Published Online: 2021-08-13
Published in Print: 2021-11-25

© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Language ideologies and social positioning: the restoration of a “much needed bridge”
  3. The dialectics of indexical semiosis: scaling up and out from the “actual” to the “virtual”
  4. Figures of personhood: time, space, and affect as heuristics for metapragmatic analysis
  5. (Meta-)communicative work in a counselling centre for refugees: reiteration, erasure and agency
  6. Insurgent words: challenging the coloniality of language
  7. Indexical borders: the sociolinguistic scales of the shibboleth
  8. Book Review
  9. Tim McNamara: Language and Subjectivity
  10. Varia
  11. Access and reach of linguistic repertoires in periods of change: a theoretical approach to sociolinguistic inequalities
  12. Chinese teenagers’ perceptions of vitality of Hokkien Chinese in Penang, Malaysia
https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2020-0024
Keywords for this article
Chinese; Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS); Hokkien; language attitudes; language shift; vitality

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Language ideologies and social positioning: the restoration of a “much needed bridge”
  3. The dialectics of indexical semiosis: scaling up and out from the “actual” to the “virtual”
  4. Figures of personhood: time, space, and affect as heuristics for metapragmatic analysis
  5. (Meta-)communicative work in a counselling centre for refugees: reiteration, erasure and agency
  6. Insurgent words: challenging the coloniality of language
  7. Indexical borders: the sociolinguistic scales of the shibboleth
  8. Book Review
  9. Tim McNamara: Language and Subjectivity
  10. Varia
  11. Access and reach of linguistic repertoires in periods of change: a theoretical approach to sociolinguistic inequalities
  12. Chinese teenagers’ perceptions of vitality of Hokkien Chinese in Penang, Malaysia
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