Abstract
This article draws on an ethnographic case study on a Turkish community-based school in New York, and discusses relationship building within this community. The larger study investigated the following research question: What is the role and function of a Turkish Saturday school in developing and maintaining Turkish language and constructing a Turkish cultural identity in the United States? It employed a conceptual framework combining language shift and maintenance, linguistic identity and ideology. Ethnographic data were analyzed following Gee’s (2005 [1999]) Discourse analysis framework. Four building blocks of Discourses were found in the Turkish community school. The focus of this article, language choices and identities, were the two essential Discourses of relationship building block. They pointed to a gap between the first-generation adults’ and the second-generation students’ language choices and identities in the school. Adults preferred and encouraged Turkish while students mostly used English. Adults considered children having a Turkish core identity; the children demonstrated fluid and hybrid identities. Nevertheless, both parties adapted to each other. Teachers translanguaged for clarity, students spoke Turkish “to adults”. Parents used Turkish language and ways of being, alongside an investment in English.
References
Aboud, Frances E. 1987. The development of ethnic self-identification and attitudes. In Mary Jane Rotheram & Jean S. Phinney (eds.), Children’s ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development, 32–56. Newbury Park, Beverly Hills, London & New Delhi: Sage Publications.Suche in Google Scholar
Aellen, Carol & Wallace E. Lambert. 1969. Ethnic identification and personality adjustments of Canadian adolescents of mixed English–French parentage. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 1. 69–86.10.1037/h0082692Suche in Google Scholar
Ahmed, Frank. 1986. Turks in America: The Ottoman Turk’s immigrant experience. Connecticut: Columbia International Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Blackledge, Adrian & Anita Pavlenko. 2001. Negotiation of identities in multilingual contexts. The International Journal of Bilingualism 5(3). 243–259.10.1177/13670069010050030101Suche in Google Scholar
Canagarajah, Suresh. 2006. Ethnographic methods in language policy. In Thomas Ricento (ed.), An introduction to language policy: theory and method, 153–169. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.Suche in Google Scholar
Carreira, Maria. 2004. Seeking explanatory adequacy: A dual approach to understanding the term “heritage language learner.” Heritage Language Learner. 2. 1.10.46538/hlj.2.1.1Suche in Google Scholar
Çolak, Yılmaz. 2004 Language policy and official ideology in early republican Turkey. Middle Eastern Studies 40(6). 67–91.10.1080/0026320042000282883Suche in Google Scholar
Çolak Bostancı, Gülcan. 2014. Amerika’daki birinci ve ikinci kuşak Türklerin dil Tercihleri, sürdürümleri, tutumları ve etnik dilsel canlılıkları[Language choice, maintenance, and ethnolinguistic vitality of first and second generation Turkish speakers in the United States], Bilig 70. 105–130.10.12995/bilig.2014.7005Suche in Google Scholar
Creese, Angela. 2005. Teacher collaboration and talk in multilingual classrooms. Clevedon, Buffalo & Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd.10.21832/9781853598234Suche in Google Scholar
Creese, Angela. 2008. Linguistic ethnography. In Kendall A. King & Nancy H. Horneberger (eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education, 2nd edition, vol. 10: Research methods in language and education, 229–241. Philadelphia: Springer Science + Business Media LLC.Suche in Google Scholar
Creese, Angela, Arvind Bhatt, Nirmala Bhojani & Peter Martin. 2006. Multicultural, heritage and learner identities in complementary schools. Language and Education 20(1). 23–43.10.1080/09500780608668708Suche in Google Scholar
Creese, Angela, Arvind Bhatt, Nirmala Bhojani & Peter Martin. 2008a. Fieldnotes in team ethnography: Researching complementary schools. Qualitative Research 8(2). 223–242.10.1177/1468794107087481Suche in Google Scholar
Creese, Angela, Taûkin Baraç, Adrian Blackledge, Shahela Hamid & Li Wei et al. 2008b. Investigating multilingualism in complementary schools in four communities. Final Report for the ESCR for Project No: RES-000-23-1180.Suche in Google Scholar
Doğançay-Aktuna, Seran. 1993. Turkish language reform in a language planning framework: Its impact on language use of Turkish Cypriot high school students. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Applied Linguistics.Suche in Google Scholar
Doğançay-Aktuna, Seran. 1998. The spread of English in Turkey and its current sociolinguistic profile. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 19(1). 24–39.10.1080/01434639808666340Suche in Google Scholar
Duranti, Alessandro. 2004. Linguistic anthropology, 7th edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua. 1971a. The impact of nationalism on language planning. In Joan Rubin & Bjorn Jernudd (eds.), Can Language Be Planned?, 3–20. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.Suche in Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua A. 1971b. The links between micro- and macro-sociolinguistics in the study of who speaks what language to whom and when. In Joshua A. Fishman, Robert L. Cooper & Roxana Ma (eds.), Bilingualism in the barrio, 583–604. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua A. 1972. The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach to language in society. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers.Suche in Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua. 1980. Ethnic community mother tongue schools in the USA.: Dynamics and distributions. International Migration Review 14(2). 235–247.10.1177/019791838001400204Suche in Google Scholar
García, Ofelia. 2009. Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. Malden, MA & Oxford: Wiley–Blackwell Publishing.Suche in Google Scholar
García, Ofelia, Zeena Zakharia & Bahar Otcu. 2013. Bilingual community education and multilingualism: Beyond heritage languages in a global city. Bristol, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781847698018Suche in Google Scholar
Gee, James Paul. 2005 [1999]. An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method. London & New York: Routledge.Suche in Google Scholar
Geertz, Clifford. 1973. Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture. In Clifford Geertz (ed.), The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays, 3–30. New York: Basic Books.Suche in Google Scholar
Gumperz, John J. 1964. Linguistic and social interaction in two communities. American Anthropologist 66(6). 137–153.10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00100Suche in Google Scholar
Hadi-Tabassum, Samina. 2006. Language, space, and power: A critical look at bilingual education. Clevedon & Buffalo: Multilingual Matters Ltd.10.21832/9781853598807Suche in Google Scholar
Hayhoe, Ruth. 1979. Written language reform and the modernization of the curriculum: A comparative study of China, Japan, and Turkey. Canadian and International Education 8(2). 14–33.Suche in Google Scholar
Hayhoe, Ruth. 1998. Language in comparative education: Three strands. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics 3(2). 1–16.Suche in Google Scholar
Heller, Monica. 1987. The role of language in the formation of ethnic identity. In Mary Jane Rotheram and Jean S. Phinney (eds.), Children’s ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development, 180–201. Newbury Park, Beverly Hills, London & New Delhi: Sage Publications.Suche in Google Scholar
Heller, Monica. 1999. Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography. London, New York: Longman.Suche in Google Scholar
Kaya, İlhan. 2003. Shifting Turkish American identity formations in the United States. Tallahassee, FL: The Florida State University dissertation.Suche in Google Scholar
Kaya, İlhan. 2004. Turkish-American immigration history and identity formations. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 24(2). 295–308.10.1080/1360200042000296672Suche in Google Scholar
Kecskes, Istvan & Tünde Papp. 2000. Foreign language and mother tongue. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.10.4324/9781410606464Suche in Google Scholar
Kornfilt, Jaklin. 1997. Turkish. London & New York: Routledge.Suche in Google Scholar
Kroskrity, Paul. V. 2000. Regimenting languages: Language ideological perspectives. In P. V. Kroskrity (Ed.), Regimes of language: Ideologies, polities, and identities, 1–34. New Mexico & Oxford: School of American Research Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Le Page, Robert Brock & Andrée Tabouret-Keller. 1985. Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity. Cambridge, London & New York: Cambridge University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Lewis, Geoffrey. 2002. The Turkish language reform: A catastrophic success. New York: Oxford University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Martinez-Roldán, Carmen M. & Guillermo Malavé. 2004. Language ideologies mediating literacy and identity in bilingual contexts. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 4(2). 155–180.10.1177/1468798404044514Suche in Google Scholar
Nahir, Moshe. 1977. The five aspects of language planning. Language Problems and Language Planning 1(2). 107–122.10.1075/lplp.1.2.07nahSuche in Google Scholar
Norton, Bonny. 2000. Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity, and educational change. London: Longman.Suche in Google Scholar
Otcu, G. Bahar. 2009. Language maintenance and cultural identity construction in a Turkish Saturday school in New York City. New York, NY: Teachers College Columbia University dissertation.10.46538/hlj.7.2.6Suche in Google Scholar
Otcu, Bahar. 2010a. Language maintenance and cultural identity construction: An ethnography of discourses in a complementary school in the US. Saarbrücken: VDM Müller.Suche in Google Scholar
Otcu, Bahar. 2010b. Heritage language maintenance and cultural identity formation: The case of a Turkish Saturday school in New York City. Heritage Language Journal 7(2), 112–137.10.46538/hlj.7.2.6Suche in Google Scholar
Otcu, Bahar. 2013. Turkishness in New York: Languages, ideologies and identities in a community-based school. In Ofelia García, Zeena Zakharia and Bahar Otcu (eds.) Bilingual community education and multilingualism: Beyond heritage languages in a global city. Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781847698018-009Suche in Google Scholar
Otcu-Grillman, Bahar. 2014. Turkish in the US: Sense of belonging and identities among Turkish immigrants. Bilig, 70. 211–23610.12995/bilig.2014.7009Suche in Google Scholar
Padilla, Amado M. 1999. Psychology. In Joshua A. Fishman (Ed.), Handbook of language and ethnic identity, 113. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
Pennycook, Alastair. 2003. Global Englishes, rip slyme, and performativity. Journal of Sociolinguistics 7(4). 513–533.10.1111/j.1467-9841.2003.00240.xSuche in Google Scholar
Reyes, Angela. 2007. Language, identity, and stereotype among southeast Asian American youth: The other Asian. Mahwah, NJ & London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.Suche in Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Doreen A. 1987. Ethnic identity development in adolescents. In Mary Jane Rotheram & Jean S. Phinney (eds.), Children’s ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development, 156–180. Newbury Park, Beverly Hills, London & New Delhi: Sage Publications.Suche in Google Scholar
Saville-Troike, Muriel. 2003. The ethnography of communication: An introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.10.1002/9780470758373Suche in Google Scholar
Taylan, Eser E. (ed.). 2002. The Verb in Turkish. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.10.1075/la.44Suche in Google Scholar
United States Census Bureau. 2005. American Community Survey “People Reporting Ancestry” – Online document: http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008/tables/08s0051.xls(accessed 1 October 2014)Suche in Google Scholar
United States Census Bureau. 2012. American Community Survey “People Reporting Ancestry” – Online document: http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2011/tables/11s0052.xls (accessed 1 October 2014)Suche in Google Scholar
Van Deusen-Scholl, Nelleke. 2003. Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 2(3). 211–230.10.1207/S15327701JLIE0203_4Suche in Google Scholar
Woolard, Kathryn A. 1998. Introduction: Language ideology as a field of inquiry. In Bambi B. Schieffelin, Kathryn A. Woolard, & Paul Kroskrity (eds.), Language ideologies: Practice and theory, 3–47. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.Suche in Google Scholar
©2016 by De Gruyter Mouton
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- Introduction: At the intersection of language and social variables: the case of Middle Eastern languages in the United States
- Turoyo Neo-Aramaic in northern New Jersey
- Language in Armenian American communities: Western Armenian and efforts for preservation
- Juhuri: From the Caucasus to New York City
- “It is the hardest to keep”: Kurdish as a heritage language in the United States
- The Persian Paradox: Language use and maintenance among Iranian Americans
- Hebrew learning ideologies and the reconceptualization of American Judaism: Language debates in American Jewish schooling in the early 20th century
- Language, conflict, and migration: Situating Arabic bilingual community education in the United States
- “Speak Turkish!” or not? Language choices, identities and relationship building within New York’s Turkish community
- Book Review
- Munther Younes, Makda Weatherspoon and Maha Saliba Foster: ‘Arabiyyat Al-Naas (Part One): An elementary course in Arabic
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- Introduction: At the intersection of language and social variables: the case of Middle Eastern languages in the United States
- Turoyo Neo-Aramaic in northern New Jersey
- Language in Armenian American communities: Western Armenian and efforts for preservation
- Juhuri: From the Caucasus to New York City
- “It is the hardest to keep”: Kurdish as a heritage language in the United States
- The Persian Paradox: Language use and maintenance among Iranian Americans
- Hebrew learning ideologies and the reconceptualization of American Judaism: Language debates in American Jewish schooling in the early 20th century
- Language, conflict, and migration: Situating Arabic bilingual community education in the United States
- “Speak Turkish!” or not? Language choices, identities and relationship building within New York’s Turkish community
- Book Review
- Munther Younes, Makda Weatherspoon and Maha Saliba Foster: ‘Arabiyyat Al-Naas (Part One): An elementary course in Arabic