Durian seed-derived gold nanoparticles: sustainable anticancer and catalytic applications from agricultural waste
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Mohammed Ali Dheyab
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Norfarahanis Jamaludin
Abstract
Agricultural waste contributes to escalating environmental pressures but also represents a valuable, renewable source for sustainable nanomaterial production. In this study, durian seed extract (DurSE), obtained from the often-discarded seeds of Durio zibethinus, was utilized as a natural reducing and capping agent for the green synthesis of multifunctional gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The biosynthesis process was systematically optimized by varying key parameters, with the most favorable conditions identified as 4 °C reaction temperature, 3 mL extract volume, and 1 mM HAuCl4·3H2O concentration. Structural and physicochemical characterizations of the resulting DurSE–AuNPs were performed using Ultraviolet–Visible spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction, confirming particle stability, functional group involvement, and crystalline nature. Biocompatibility and therapeutic potential were assessed in-vitro against MCF-7 human breast cancer cells, where the nanoparticles significantly reduced cell viability to 31 % at a concentration of 32 μg mL−1. Furthermore, the DurSE–AuNPs demonstrated excellent catalytic activity, achieving complete reduction of Methylene Blue and Methyl Orange dyes within 3 min and 15 min, respectively. These results highlight the dual biomedical and environmental potential of agricultural waste-derived nanomaterials, offering a sustainable route for producing high-value, multifunctional nanoparticles.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, for the support provided, and to the staff of the Medical Physics and Biophysics Laboratory for their valuable assistance.
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Research ethics: Not applicable.
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Informed consent: Not applicable.
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Author contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.D. and A.A.A.; methodology, M.A.D.; software, M.A.D., N.J., W.A., and M.S.J.; validation, M.A.D., F.S.B., and A.A.A.; formal analysis, M.A.D., N.J., F.S.B., M.S.J., W.H.K., A.I.J.M., and S.H.N.; investigation, M.A.D.; resources, M.A.D., W.A., W.H.K., and A.I.J.M.; data curation, M.A.D. and S.H.N.; writing – original draft preparation, M.A.D., N.J.; writing – review and editing, M.A.D., N.J., and A.A.A.; visualization, M.A.D.; supervision, M.A.D. and A.A.A.; project administration, M.A.D.; funding acquisition, M.A.D. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
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Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.
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Conflict of interest: The author states no conflict of interest.
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Research funding: This work was supported by a Universiti Sains Malaysia Bridging Grant with Project No: R501-LR-RND003-0000002097-0000.
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Data availability: Not applicable.
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