Home Physical Sciences Utilizing mold fermentation to improve the texture and flavor of soy-nut cheese analogs
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Utilizing mold fermentation to improve the texture and flavor of soy-nut cheese analogs

  • Douyi Chen , Ziyi Chang , Peijiao Li , Jiafeng Chen , Xiaomin Qiu , Meiyun Lin , Zhiwei Ye , Liqiong Guo , Junfang Lin , Yuan Zou EMAIL logo and Qianwang Zheng EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: August 26, 2025
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
International Journal of Food Engineering
From the journal International Journal of Food Engineering Volume 21 Issue 9

Abstract

This study investigated effects of mold fermentation on the texture and flavor of soy-nut cheese analogs (SNCA) using Mucor wutungkiao (SNCA-M), Rhizopus oryzae (SNCA-R), and their combination (SNCA-M+R) over 20-day fermentation period. The results found that all cheese analogs showed decreasing trends in protein content, fat content, pH, springiness, and cohesiveness throughout fermentation. Notably, the moduli, hardness, and chewiness peaked on day 3 before declining. The rate of these changes was more pronounced in SNCA-M+R than in SNCA-M or SNCA-R. All samples achieved their higest sensory scores on day 5 of fermentation. At this stage, the fermented analogs showed significantly higher free amino acid (FFA) content and volatile flavor compound concentrations, along with reduced levels of beany flavor substances compared to unfermented controls. Among the variants, SNAC-M+R displayed the highest sensory score and FFAs content, as well as the lowest concentration of beany flavor compounds.

Keywords: soy-nut cheese analog; mold; fermentation; texture; sensory perception; volatile flavor
Corresponding authors: Yuan Zou and Qianwang Zheng, Department of Bioengineering, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Street, Guangzhou, 510642, China, E-mail: (Y. Zou), (Q. Zheng)
Douyi Chen and Ziyi Chang are co-first authors. They contributed equally to this work.

Funding source: Provincial Science and Technology Innovation Strategy Special Project - Municipal and County Science and Technology Innovation Support Project

Award Identifier / Grant number: STKJ2023048

Funding source: the National Natural Science Foundation of China

Award Identifier / Grant number: 32272298, 32272785

  1. Research ethics: Ethics approval was not required by national law, and the establishment of a human ethics committee was not required under national regulations for sensory review. The participants gave their consent to take part in the sensory study and use their information prior to the commencement of the sensory evaluation analysis. The confidentiality protocols for protecting the rights and privacy of all participants were utilized during the execution of the research.

  2. Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individuals included in this study.

  3. Author contributions: Douyi Chen: Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, methodology, investigation, visualization, writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing; Ziyi Chang: data curation, formal analysis, visualization, writing – review and editing; Peijiao Li: validation, investigation; Jiafeng Chen: validation, investigation. Xiaomin Qiu and Meiyun Lin: funding acquisition, writing-reviewing and editing; Zhiwei Ye, Liqiong Guo and Junfang Lin: funding acquisition, writing-reviewing and editing; Qianwang Zheng and Yuan Zou: project administration, funding acquisition, supervision, conceptualization, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing; Douyi Chen and Ziyi Chang are co-first authors. They contributed equally to this work.

  4. Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.

  5. Conflict of interest: There is no conflict of interest among authors.

  6. Research funding: This work was supported by Provincial Science and Technology Innovation Strategy Special Project, Municipal and County Science and Technology Innovation Support Project (No. STKJ2023048) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32272298, 32272785).

  7. Data availability: Not applicable.

References

1. Grossmann, L, McClements, DJ. The science of plant-based foods: approaches to create nutritious and sustainable plant-based cheese analogs. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021;118:207–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.10.004.Search in Google Scholar

2. Wang, YH, Wang, JM, Wan, Z, L, Yang, XQ, Chen, XW. Corn protein hydrolysate as a new structural modifier for soybean protein isolate based O/W emulsions. LWT 2020;118:108763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108763.Search in Google Scholar

3. Jeewanthi, RKC, Paik, H-D. Modifications of nutritional, structural, and sensory characteristics of non-dairy soy cheese analogs to improve their quality attributes. J Food Sci Technol 2018;55:4384–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-018-3408-3.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

4. Nicolás Saraco, M, Blaxland, J. Dairy-free imitation cheese: is further development required? Br Food J 2020;122:3727–40. https://doi.org/10.1108/bfj-11-2019-0825.Search in Google Scholar

5. Oyeyinka, AT, Odukoya, JO, Adebayo, YS. Nutritional composition and consumer acceptability of cheese analog from soy and cashew nut milk. J Food Process Preserv 2019;43:e14285. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14285.Search in Google Scholar

6. Balogun, MA, Oyeyinka, SA, Kolawole, FL, Joseph, JK, Olajobi, GE. Chemical composition and sensory properties of soy-tiger nut cheese. Ceylon J Sci 2019;48:353–8. https://doi.org/10.4038/cjs.v48i4.7676.Search in Google Scholar

7. Kadbhane VS, SG, Thorat, SL. Preparation of non dairy cheese analogue enriched with coconut milk. Pharm Innov 2019;8:56–60. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214320196.Search in Google Scholar

8. Bachmann, H-P. Cheese analogues: a review. Int Dairy J 2001;11:505–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0958-6946(01)00073-5.Search in Google Scholar

9. Li, Q, Xia, Y, Zhou, L, Xie, J. Evaluation of the rheological, textural, microstructural and sensory properties of soy cheese spreads. Food Bioprod Process 2013;91:429–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2013.03.001.Search in Google Scholar

10. Xia, Y, Yuan, R, Weng, S, Wang, G, Xiong, Z, Zhang, H, et al.. Proteolysis, lipolysis, texture and sensory properties of cheese ripened by monascus fumeus. Food Res Int 2020;137:109657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109657.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

11. Hermet, A, Méheust, D, Mounier, J, Barbier, G, Jany, JL. Molecular systematics in the genus mucor with special regards to species encountered in cheese. Fungal Biol 2012;116:692–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2012.04.002.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

12. Farid, MS, Anjum, R, Yang, Y, Tu, M, Zhang, T, Pan, D, et al.. Recent trends in fermented plant-based analogues and products, bioactive peptides, and novel technologies-assisted fermentation. Trends Food Sci Technol 2024;149:104529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104529.Search in Google Scholar

13. Khattab, AR, Guirguis, HA, Tawfik, SM, Farag, MA. Cheese ripening: a review on modern technologies towards flavor enhancement, process acceleration and improved quality assessment. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019;88:343–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.03.009.Search in Google Scholar

14. McSweeney, PLH. Biochemistry of cheese ripening. Int J Dairy Technol 2004;57:127–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0307.2004.00147.x.Search in Google Scholar

15. Xiang, Q, Xia, Y, Song, J, Nazmus Saqib, M, Zhong, F. Characterization of the key nonvolatile metabolites in cheddar cheese by partial least squares regression (PLSR), reconstitution, and omission. Food Chem 2023;403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134034.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

16. Choi, HJ, Lee, NK, Paik, HD. Health benefits of lactic acid bacteria isolated from kimchi, with respect to immunomodulatory effects. Food Sci Biotechnol 2015;24:783–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-015-0102-3.Search in Google Scholar

17. Lorrungrua, C, Sinma, K, Pantagrud, P, Wannasiris, S, Mahabandha, K, Khucharoen, K. Red cheese production from soymilk by Monascus purpureus and Lactobacillus casei. J Appl Sci 2014;14:2819–24. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2014.2819.2824.Search in Google Scholar

18. Yao, D, Xu, L, Wu, M, Wang, X, Zhu, L, Wang, C. Effects of microbial community succession on flavor compounds and physicochemical properties during CS sufu fermentation. LWT – Food Sci Technol 2021;152:112313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112313.Search in Google Scholar

19. Hu, X, Liu, S, Li, E. Microbial community succession and its correlation with the dynamics of flavor compound profiles in naturally fermented stinky sufu. Food Chem 2023;427:136742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136742.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

20. Yang, Q, Zheng, Q, Jin, M, Chen, Y, Guo, L, Lin, J, et al.. Fabrication of gel-like emulsions with γ-zein particles using microfluidization: structure formation and rheological properties. Food Res Int 2022;158:111514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111514.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

21. Huang, Z, Liu, H, Zhao, L, He, W, Zhou, X, Chen, H, et al.. Evaluating the effect of different processing methods on fermented soybean whey-based tofu quality, nutrition, and flavour. LWT – Food Sci Technol 2022;158:113139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113139.Search in Google Scholar

22. Giménez, P, Peralta, GH, Batistela, ME, Cuffia, F, Ale, EC, Wolf, IV, et al.. Impact of the use of skim milk powder and adjunct cultures on the levels of organic acid and carbohydrates, volatile compounds and sensory properties of cremoso cheese. Int Dairy J 2023;140:105594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2023.105594.Search in Google Scholar

23. Lawlor, JB, Delahunty, CM, Sheehan, J, Wilkinson, MG. Relationships between sensory attributes and the volatile compounds, non-volatile and gross compositional constituents of six blue-type cheeses. Int Dairy J 2003;13:481–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0958-6946(03)00048-7.Search in Google Scholar

24. Diezhandino, I, Fernández, D, Sacristán, N, Combarros-Fuertes, P, Prieto, B, Fresno, JM. Rheological, textural, colour and sensory characteristics of a Spanish blue cheese (Valdeón cheese). LWT – Food Sci Technol 2016;65:1118–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.10.003.Search in Google Scholar

25. Ares, G, Alcaire, F, Antúnez, L, Vidal, L, Giménez, A, Castura, JC. Identification of drivers of (dis) liking based on dynamic sensory profiles: comparison of temporal dominance of sensations and temporal check-all-that-apply. Food Res Int 2017;92:79–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2016.12.016.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

26. Zhang, X, Zheng, Y, Zhou, R, Ma, M. Comprehensive identification of molecular profiles related to sensory and nutritional changes in mongolian cheese during storage by untargeted metabolomics coupled with quantification of free amino acids. Food Chem 2022;386:132740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132740.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

27. Güler, Z. Profiles of organic acid and volatile compounds in acid-type cheeses containing herbs and spices (Surk cheese). Int J Food Prop 2014;17:1379–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2012.697957.Search in Google Scholar

28. Xiang, L, Zhu, W, Jiang, B, Chen, J, Zhou, L, Zhong, F. Volatile compounds analysis and biodegradation strategy of beany flavor in pea protein. Food Chem 2023;402:134275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134275.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

29. Chen, C, Liu, Z, Yu, H, Xu, Z, Tian, H. Flavoromic determination of lactones in cheddar cheese by GC–MS–olfactometry, aroma extract dilution analysis, aroma recombination and omission analysis. Food Chem 2022;368:130736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130736.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

30. Chen, Y, Zhou, X, Zhan, J, Yan, B, Xie, Y, Zang, J, et al.. An insight into the quality formation of egg-white sufu based on the dynamic changes of protease activity, physicochemical properties and texture. Int J Gastron Food Sci 2024;35:100842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2023.100842.Search in Google Scholar

31. Sahingil, D, Hayaloglu, AA, Simsek, O, Ozer, B. Changes in volatile composition, proteolysis and textural and sensory properties of white-brined cheese: effects of ripening temperature and adjunct culture. Dairy Sci Technol 2014;94:603–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13594-014-0185-2.Search in Google Scholar

32. Ji, X. Investigation of the volatile components in commercial sufu (Chinese fermented soybean curd) based on HS‐SPME/GC‐MS combined with multivariate statistical analysis. J Food Process Preserv 2019;44:e14309. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14309.Search in Google Scholar

33. Oluk, AC. Effect of production variations on the composition, textural and microstructural properties, and volatile compounds of Turkish white cheese during ripening. LWT – Food Sci Technol 2023;173:114348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.114348.Search in Google Scholar

34. Huang, M, Wang, Q, Zhang, M, Zhu, Q. Prediction of color and moisture content for vegetable soybean during drying using hyperspectral imaging technology. J Food Eng 2014;128:24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2013.12.008.Search in Google Scholar

35. Jeske, S, Zannini, E, Arendt, EK. Past, present and future: the strength of plant-based dairy substitutes based on gluten-free raw materials. Food Res Int 2018;110:42–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2017.03.045.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

36. Zou, Y, Yang, X, Scholten, E. Tuning particle properties to control rheological behavior of high internal phase emulsion gels stabilized by zein/tannic acid complex particles. Food Hydrocoll 2019;89:163–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.10.037.Search in Google Scholar

37. Ayyash, M, Abu-Jdayil, B, Hamed, F, Shaker, R. Rheological, textural, microstructural and sensory impact of exopolysaccharide-producing Lactobacillus plantarum isolated from camel milk on low-fat akawi cheese. LWT – Food Sci Technol 2018;87:423–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.09.023.Search in Google Scholar

38. Yin, WJ, Chen, XW, Ma, C-G. Fabrication and characterization of tunable high internal phase emulsion gels (HIPE-Gels) formed by natural triterpenoid saponin and plant soy protein. ACS Food Sci Technol 2022;2. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.2c00082.Search in Google Scholar

39. Lee, SK, Anema, S, Klostermeyer, H. The influence of moisture content on the rheological properties of processed cheese spreads. Int J Food Sci Technol 2004;39:763–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00842.x.Search in Google Scholar

40. Kang, ZL, Zou, XL, Meng, L, Li, Yp. Effects of NaCl and soy protein isolate on the physicochemical, water distribution, and mobility in frankfurters. Int J Food Sci Technol 2021;56:6572–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15353.Search in Google Scholar

41. Xia, X, Li, G, Zheng, J, Ran, C, Kan, J. Biochemical, textural and microstructural changes in whole‐soya bean cotyledon sufu during fermentation. Int J Food Sci Technol 2014;49:1834–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.12492.Search in Google Scholar

42. Fox, PF, Uniacke-Lowe, T, McSweeney, P, O’Mahony, JA. Chemistry and biochemistry of cheese. In: Fox, PF, editor. Dairy chemistry and biochemistry. New York: Springer; 2015:499–546.10.1007/978-3-319-14892-2_12Search in Google Scholar

43. Lioe, HN, Kinjo, A, Yasuda, S, Kuba-Miyara, M, Tachibana, S, Yasuda, M. Taste and chemical characteristics of low molecular weight fractions from tofuyo – Japanese fermented soybean curd. Food Chem 2018;252:265–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.01.117.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

44. Xie, C, Zeng, H, Qin, L. Physicochemical, taste, and functional changes during the enhanced fermentation of low-salt sufu paste, a Chinese fermented soybean food. Int J Food Prop 2019;21:2714–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2018.1560313.Search in Google Scholar

45. Ayag, N, Dagdemir, E, Hayaloglu, AA. Comparison of γ-aminobutyric acid and free amino acid contents of some common varieties of Turkish cheeses. Int Dairy J 2022;128:105285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2021.105285.Search in Google Scholar

46. Wang Lijun, MS, Eizo, T, Lite, L. Antioxidative and angiotensin i-converting enzyme inhibitory activities of sufu (fermented tofu) extracts. Jpn Agric Res Q 2003;37:129–32. https://doi.org/10.6090/jarq.37.129.Search in Google Scholar

47. Niro, S, Succi, M, Tremonte, P, Sorrentino, E, Coppola, R, Panfili, G, et al.. Evolution of free amino acids during ripening of caciocavallo cheeses made with different milks. J Dairy Sci 2017;100:9521–31. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13308.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

48. Li, Y, Zhang, X, Yang, JJ, Ma, XY, Jia, XD, Du, P, et al.. Influence of the addition of Geotrichum candidum on the microbial, chemical, textural, and sensory features of soft soy cheese. J Food Process Preserv 2020;44:e14823. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14823.Search in Google Scholar

49. Wang, B, Zhang, Q, Zhang, N, Bak, KH, Soladoye, OP, Aluko, RE, et al.. Insights into formation, detection and removal of the beany flavor in soybean protein. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021;112:336–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.04.018.Search in Google Scholar

50. Ling, H, Shi, H, Chen, X, Cheng, K. Detection of the microbial diversity and flavour components of Northeastern Chinese soybean paste during storage. Food Chem 2022;374:131686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131686.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

51. Poliseli-Scopel, FH, Hernández-Herrero, M, Guamis, B, Ferragut, V. Sterilization and aseptic packaging of soymilk treated by ultra high pressure homogenization. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 2014;22:81–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2014.01.001.Search in Google Scholar

52. Zhang, C, Hua, Y, Li, X, Kong, X, Chen, Y. Key volatile off-flavor compounds in peas (Pisum sativum L.) and their relations with the endogenous precursors and enzymes using soybean (Glycine max) as a reference. Food Chem 2020;333:127469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127469.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

53. Lv, YC, Song, Hl., Li, X, Wu, L, Guo, ST. Influence of blanching and grinding process with hot water on beany and non‐beany flavor in soymilk. J Food Sci 2011;76:S20–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01947.x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

54. Wei, G, Regenstein, JM, Zhou, P. The aroma profile and microbiota structure in oil furu, a Chinese fermented soybean curd. Food Res Int 2021;147:110473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110473.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

55. Fan, W, Qian, MC. Identification of aroma compounds in Chinese ‘Yanghe Daqu’ liquor by normal phase chromatography fractionation followed by gas chromatography[sol]olfactometry. Flavour Fragrance J 2006;21:333–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.1621.Search in Google Scholar

Supplementary Material

This article contains supplementary material (https://doi.org/10.1515/ijfe-2025-0094).

Received: 2025-04-12
Accepted: 2025-07-29
Published Online: 2025-08-26

© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Articles
  3. Utilizing mold fermentation to improve the texture and flavor of soy-nut cheese analogs
  4. The differential analysis of volatile substances from Gucong green tea
  5. Effects of freeze-drying and powder storage time on preservation of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of mixed pineapple (Ananas comosus) and acerola (Malpighia emarginata) pulps
  6. Fabrication of oleogel-structured microcapsules for enhanced stability: effect of oil phase solidification
  7. Bactericidal effect of intense pulsed light on Gram-negative bacteria in planktonic and biofilm states
https://doi.org/10.1515/ijfe-2025-0094
Keywords for this article
soy-nut cheese analog; mold; fermentation; texture; sensory perception; volatile flavor

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Articles
  3. Utilizing mold fermentation to improve the texture and flavor of soy-nut cheese analogs
  4. The differential analysis of volatile substances from Gucong green tea
  5. Effects of freeze-drying and powder storage time on preservation of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of mixed pineapple (Ananas comosus) and acerola (Malpighia emarginata) pulps
  6. Fabrication of oleogel-structured microcapsules for enhanced stability: effect of oil phase solidification
  7. Bactericidal effect of intense pulsed light on Gram-negative bacteria in planktonic and biofilm states
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 30.12.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijfe-2025-0094/html
Scroll to top button