Home Outliers in American juvenile justice: the need for statutory reform in North Carolina and New York
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Outliers in American juvenile justice: the need for statutory reform in North Carolina and New York

  • Frank Tedeschi EMAIL logo and Elizabeth Ford
Published/Copyright: November 20, 2014

Abstract

There is a well-established and growing body of evidence from research that adolescents who commit crimes differ in many regards from their adult counterparts and are more susceptible to the negative effects of adjudication and incarceration in adult criminal justice systems. The age of criminal court jurisdiction in the United States has varied throughout history; yet, there are only two remaining states, New York and North Carolina, that continue to automatically charge 16 year olds as adults. This review traces the statutory history of juvenile justice in these two states with an emphasis on political and social factors that have contributed to their outlier status related to the age of criminal court jurisdiction. The neurobiological, psychological, and developmental aspects of the adolescent brain and personality, and how those issues relate both to a greater likelihood of rehabilitation in appropriate settings and to greater vulnerability in adult correctional facilities, are also reviewed. The importance of raising the age in New York and North Carolina not only lies in protecting incarcerated youths but also in preventing the associated stigma following release. Mental health practitioners are vital to the process of local and national juvenile justice reform. They can serve as experts on and advocates for appropriate mental health care and as experts on the adverse effects of the adult criminal justice system on adolescents.


Corresponding author: Frank Tedeschi, MD, Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, 1 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA, E-mail:

References

1. Roper v Simmons (2005) 543 U.S. 551; 125 S. Ct. 1183; 161 L. Ed. 2d 1.Search in Google Scholar

2. Shepherd RE Jr. The juvenile court at 100 years: a look back. Juvenile Justice 1999;6:13–21.Search in Google Scholar

3. Platt AM. The child savers: the invention of delinquency. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1977.Search in Google Scholar

4. Soulier MF, Scott CL. Juveniles in court. Harvard Rev Psychiatry 2010;18:317–25.10.3109/10673229.2010.527518Search in Google Scholar PubMed

5. Steinberg L. Adolescent development and juvenile justice. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2009;5:459–85.10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153603Search in Google Scholar PubMed

6. American Bar Association. Dialogue on youth and justice, part 1: the history of juvenile justice. Available at: http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/publiced/features/DYJfull.authcheckdam.pdf. Accessed 06 April, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

7. Bath EPJ, Billick SB. Overview of juvenile law. In: Benedek EP, Ash P, Scott CL, editors. Principles and practice of child and adolescent forensic mental health. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2009:337–45.Search in Google Scholar

8. Kent v United States (1966) 383 U.S. 541; 86 S. Ct. 1045; 16 L. Ed. 2d 84.Search in Google Scholar

9. In re Gault (1967) 387 U.S. 1; 87 S. Ct. 1428; 18 L. Ed. 2d 527.Search in Google Scholar

10. In re Winship (1970) 397 U.S. 358; 90 S. Ct. 1068; 25 L. Ed. 2d 368.Search in Google Scholar

11. Breed v Jones (1975) 421 U.S. 519; 95 S. Ct. 1779; 44 L. Ed. 2d 346.Search in Google Scholar

12. Scott ES, Steinberg L. Adolescent development and the regulation of youth crime. Future Child 2008;18:15–33.10.1353/foc.0.0011Search in Google Scholar PubMed

13. Dilulio JJ. The coming of the super-predators. Wkly Standard 1995;1:23–30.Search in Google Scholar

14. Fagan J. Juvenile crime and criminal justice: resolving border disputes. Future Child 2008;18:81–118.10.1353/foc.0.0014Search in Google Scholar PubMed

15. Sobie M. Pity the child: the age of delinquency in New York. Pace Law Rev 2010;30:1061–88.Search in Google Scholar

16. Szymanksi L. NCJJ Snapshot: upper and lower age of delinquency jurisdiction. Pittsburgh: National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2011.Search in Google Scholar

17. Graham v Florida (2010) 130 S. Ct. 2011; 560 U.S. 48; 176 L. Ed. 2d 825.Search in Google Scholar

18. Jackson v Hobbs (2011) 132 S. Ct. 548; 181 L. Ed. 2d 395.Search in Google Scholar

19. Miller v Alabama (2012) 132 S. Ct. 2455; 567 U.S.; 183 L. Ed. 2d 407.Search in Google Scholar

20. Birckhead TR. North Carolina, juvenile court jurisdiction, and the resistance to reform. NC Law Rev 2008;86:101–55.Search in Google Scholar

21. North Carolina Constitution, Article XI, § 5. 1868.Search in Google Scholar

22. Alley BG, Wilson JT. North Carolina juvenile justice system: a history, 1868–1993. Raleigh, NC: NC Administrative Office of the Courts, 1994.Search in Google Scholar

23. Sanders WB, Ezell WC. Juvenile court cases in North Carolina, 1929–1934. Raleigh, NC: State Board Charities Public Welfare, 1937.Search in Google Scholar

24. Sanders WB. Negro child welfare in North Carolina: a Rosenwald study. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1933.Search in Google Scholar

25. Commission on Juvenile Courts and Correctional Institutions. Commission on Juvenile Courts and Correctional Institutions: Report to Governor Luther B. Hodges and the General Assembly of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC: Commission on Juvenile Court and Correctional Institutions, 1955.Search in Google Scholar

26. The Juvenile Law Study Commission. The Juvenile Law Study Commission Report to the 1987 General Assembly of North Carolina. Raleigh, NC: The Juvenile Law Study Commission, 1987.Search in Google Scholar

27. North Carolina Sentencing and Policy Advisory Commission. Juvenile-to-adult comprehensive criminal history study. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Sentencing and Policy Advisory Commission, 2004.Search in Google Scholar

28. National Center for Juvenile Justice. North Carolina: delinquency services summary. Available at: http://www.ncjj.org/pdf/State%20Profile%20Reports/NORTH%20CAROLINA%20revised%208-31-11.pdf. Accessed 24 May, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

29. New York State Archives. The greatest reform school in the world: a guide to the records of the New York House of Refuge. Available at: http://www.archives.nysed.gov/a/research/res_topics_ed_reform.pdf. Accessed 25 May, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

30. Lazarow K. The continued viability of New York’s Juvenile Offender Act in light of recent national developments. NYL Sch Law Rev 2012;57:595–635.Search in Google Scholar

31. Singer SI, McDowall D. Criminalizing delinquency: the deterrent effects of the New York Juvenile Offender Law. Law Soc Rev 1988;22:521–35.10.2307/3053628Search in Google Scholar

32. Newman SA. Juvenile justice reform in New York: Foreword: the past, present, and future of juvenile justice reform in New York State. NYL Sch Law Rev 2011/2012;56:1263–86.Search in Google Scholar

33. Haddad M. Catching up: the need for New York State to amend its Juvenile Offender Law to reflect psychiatric, constitutional, and normative trends over the last three decades. Cardozo Public Law Policy Ethics J 2009;7:455–85.Search in Google Scholar

34. New York City Family Court. New York City Family Court: 2010 Annual Report. Available at: https://www.nycourts.gov/courts/nyc/family/2010%20Annual%20Report%20NYC%20Family%20Court.pdf. Accessed 25 May, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

35. Worth RF. A crime revisited: Wilding; A word that seared a city’s imagination. NY Times 2002 Dec 6. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/06/nyregion/a-crime-revisited-wilding-a-word-that-seared-a-city-s-imagination.html. Accessed 25 May, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

36. North Carolina Sentencing and Policy Advisory Commission. Report to the North Carolina General Assembly in compliance with Session Law 2006-248, Sections 34.1 and 34.2. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Sentencing and Policy Advisory Commission, 2007.Search in Google Scholar

37. Namkoong H. North Carolina Health News. 2014 May 22. Available at: http://www.northcarolinahealthnews.org/2014/05/22/historic-raise-the-age-legislation-passes-the-house/. Accessed 01 June, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

38. Butts JA, Roman JK. Line drawing: raising the minimum age of criminal court jurisdiction in New York. Research and Evaluation Center, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, 2014. Available at: http://johnjayresearch.org/rec/files/2014/02/linedrawing.pdf. Accessed 04 June, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

39. Steinberg L. Does recent research on adolescent brain development inform the mature minor doctrine? J Med Philos 2013;38:256–67.10.1093/jmp/jht017Search in Google Scholar PubMed

40. Steinberg L. A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Dev Rev 2008;28:78–106.10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

41. Ernst M, Speak L. Reward systems. In: de Haan M, Gunnar M, editors. Handbook of developmental social neuroscience. New York: Guilford, 2009:324–41.Search in Google Scholar

42. Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Tessner KD, Toga AW. Mapping continued brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: inverse relationships during postadolescent brain maturation. J Neurosci 2001;21:8819–29.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-22-08819.2001Search in Google Scholar

43. Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, Hayashi KM, Greenstein D, et al. Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:8174–9.10.1073/pnas.0402680101Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

44. Giedd JN. The teen brain: insights from neuroimaging. J Adolesc Health 2008;42:335–43.10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.01.007Search in Google Scholar PubMed

45. Luciana M, Conklin HM, Hooper CJ, Yarger RS. The development of nonverbal working memory and executive control processes in adolescents. Child Dev 2005;76:697–712.10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00872.xSearch in Google Scholar

46. Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Holmes CJ, Jernigan TL, Toga AW. In vivo evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions. Nat Neurosci 1999;2:859–61.10.1038/13154Search in Google Scholar

47. Rubia K, Overmeyer S, Taylor E, Brammer M, Williams SC, et al. Functional frontalisation with age: mapping neurodevelopmental trajectories with fMRI. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2000:24: 13–9.10.1016/S0149-7634(99)00055-XSearch in Google Scholar

48. Sowell ER, Peterson BS, Thompson PM, Welcome SE, Henkenius AL, et al. Mapping cortical change across the human life span. Nat Neurosci 2003;6:309–15.10.1038/nn1008Search in Google Scholar PubMed

49. Gogtay N, Thompson PM. Mapping gray matter development: implications for typical development and vulnerability to psychopathology. Brain Cogn 2010;72:6–15.10.1016/j.bandc.2009.08.009Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

50. Aronson JD. Brain imaging, culpability and the juvenile death penalty. Psychol Public Policy Law 2007;13:115–42.10.1037/1076-8971.13.2.115Search in Google Scholar

51. Steinberg L. Should the science of adolescent brain development inform public policy? Am Psychol 2009;64:739–50.10.1037/0003-066X.64.8.739Search in Google Scholar PubMed

52. Johnson SB, Blum RW, Giedd JN. Adolescent maturity and the brain: the promise and pitfalls of neuroscience research in adolescent health policy. J Adolesc Health 2009;45:216–21.10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

53. Lenroot RK, Gogtay N, Greensteine DK, Wells EM, Wallace GL, et al. Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence. Neuroimage 2007;36:1065–73.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.053Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

54. Barnea-Goraly N, Menon V, Eckert M, Tamm L, Bammer R, et al. White matter development during childhood and adolescence: a cross-sectional diffusion tensor imaging study. Cereb Cortex 2005;15:1848–54.10.1093/cercor/bhi062Search in Google Scholar PubMed

55. Spear LP. The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2000;24:417–63.10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00014-2Search in Google Scholar

56. Gardner M, Steinberg L. Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: an experimental study. Dev Psychol 2005;41:625–35.10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625Search in Google Scholar PubMed

57. Steinberg L, Monahan KC. Age differences in resistance to peer influence. Dev Psychol 2007;43:1531–43.10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

58. Erikson E. Identity: youth and crisis. New York: WW Norton, 1968.Search in Google Scholar

59. Ficke SL, Hart KJ, Deardorff PA. The performance of incarcerated juveniles on the MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool-Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT-CA). J Am Acad Psychiatry 2006;34:360–73.Search in Google Scholar

60. Mears DP, Aron LY. Addressing the needs of youth with disabilities in the juvenile justice system: the current state of knowledge. Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2003.Search in Google Scholar

61. Otto RK, Greenstein JJ, Johnson MK, Friedman RM. Prevalence of mental disorders in the juvenile justice system. In: Cocozza JJ, editor. Responding to the mental health needs of youth in the juvenile justice system. Seattle: National Coalition for the Mentally Ill in the Criminal Justice System, 1992:7–48.Search in Google Scholar

62. Shufelt JL, Cocozza JJ. Youth with mental health disorders in the juvenile justice system: results from a multi-state prevalence study. Delmar, NY: National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice, 2006.Search in Google Scholar

63. Teplin LA, Abram KM, McClelland GM, Dulcan MK, Mericle AA. Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002;59:1133–43.10.1001/archpsyc.59.12.1133Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

64. Karnik N, Soller M, Redlich A, Silverman M, Kraemer HC, et al. Prevalence of and gender differences in psychiatric disorders among juvenile delinquents incarcerated for nine months. Psychiatr Serv 2009;60:838–41.10.1176/ps.2009.60.6.838Search in Google Scholar PubMed

65. Teplin LA, Welty LJ, Abram KM, Dulcan MK, Washburn JJ. Prevalence and persistence of psychiatric disorders in youth after detention: a prospective longitudinal study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2012;69:1031–43.10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2062Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

66. Wasserman GA, McReynolds LS. Contributors to traumatic exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in juvenile justice youths. J Trauma Stress 2011:24:422–9.10.1002/jts.20664Search in Google Scholar PubMed

67. Flaherty MG. An assessment of the national incidence of juvenile suicide in adult jails, lockups, and juvenile detention centers. Community Research forum, prepared for the US Department of Justice. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, 1980.Search in Google Scholar

68. Campaign for Youth Justice. Jailing juveniles: the dangers of incarcerating youth in adult jails in America. Available at: http://www.campaignforyouthjustice.org/Downloads/NationalReportsArticles/CFYJ-Jailing_Juveniles_Report_2007-11-15.pdf. Accessed 06 June, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

69. Bishop DM. Juvenile offenders in the adult criminal justice system. Crime Justice 2000;27:81–167.10.1086/652199Search in Google Scholar

70. Street D, Vinter RD, Perrow C. Organization for treatment. New York: Free Press, 1966.Search in Google Scholar

71. Feld BC. Neutralizing inmate violence: juvenile offenders in institutions. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1977.Search in Google Scholar

72. Poole ED, Regoli RM. Violence in juvenile institutions. Criminology 1983;21:213–32.10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00259.xSearch in Google Scholar

73. Toch H. Living in prison: the ecology of survival, 2nd ed. Lawrenceville, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.Search in Google Scholar

74. Lockwood D. Prison sexual violence. New York: Elsevier, 1980.Search in Google Scholar

75. Irwin J. Prisons in turmoil. Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1980.Search in Google Scholar

76. Bowker LH. Prison victimization. New York: Elsevier, 1980.Search in Google Scholar

77. McShane M, Williams FP III. The prison adjustment of juvenile offenders. Crime Delinq 1989;35:254–69.10.1177/0011128789035002005Search in Google Scholar

78. Toch H, Adams K. Coping: maladaptation in prison. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1989.Search in Google Scholar

79. Craddock A. A comparative study of male and female prison misconduct careers. Prison J 1996;76:60–81.10.1177/0032855596076001004Search in Google Scholar

80. Wright KN. The violent and victimized in the male prison. J Offender Rehabil 1991;16:1–26.10.1300/J076v16n03_01Search in Google Scholar

81. Cooley D. Criminal victimization in male federal prisons. Can J Criminol 1993;35:479–95.10.3138/cjcrim.35.4.479Search in Google Scholar

82. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Sexual victimization in prisons and jails reported by inmates, 2011–2012: National Inmate Survey, 2011–2012. Available at: http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/svpjri1112.pdf. Accessed 10 June, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

83. Bishop DM, Frazier CE, Lanza-Kaduce L, White HG. Juvenile transfers to criminal court study: phase I final report. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1998.Search in Google Scholar

84. Weiser B, Schwirtz M. U.S. inquiry finds a ‘culture of violence’ against teenage inmates at Rikers Island. NY Times 2014 Aug 4. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/05/nyregion/us-attorneys-office-reveals-civil-rights-investigation-at-rikers-island.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Ar%2C%7B%222%22%3A%22RI%3A14%22%7D&_r=0. Accessed 10 June, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

85. Puzzanchera C, Adams B. Juvenile offenders and victims: national report series: juvenile arrests 2009. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2011.Search in Google Scholar

86. Piquero AR, Farrington DP, Blumstein A. The criminal career paradigm. In: Tonry M, Morris N, editors. Crime and justice: a review of research. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003:359–506.Search in Google Scholar

87. Moffitt TE. Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychol Rev 1993;100:674–701.10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674Search in Google Scholar

88. Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Harrington H, Milne BJ. Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: follow-up at age 26 years. Dev Psychopathol 2002;14:179–207.10.1017/S0954579402001104Search in Google Scholar

89. MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Adolescent Development and Juvenile Justice. The changing borders of juvenile justice: transfer of adolescents to the adult criminal court. Available at: http://www.adjj.org/downloads/3582issue_brief_5.pdf. Accessed 11 June, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

90. New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, Office of Justice Research and Performance. Criminal justice case processing of 16–17 year olds. Available at: http://www.cardozo. yu.edu/sites/default/files/Criminal%20Justice%20Case%20Processing%20of%2016-17%20Year%20Olds.pdf. Accessed 3 January, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

91. Craddock A, Gallagher A, Hevener G, Flinchum T, Hall M, et al. Correctional program evaluation: offenders placed on probation or released from prison in fiscal year 2008/2009. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Sentencing and Policy Advisory Commission, 2012.Search in Google Scholar

92. Lanza-Kaduce L, Frazier CE, Lane J, Bishop DM. Juvenile transfer to criminal court study: final report. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Juvenile Justice, 2002.Search in Google Scholar

93. Podkopacz M, Feld B. The end of the line: an empirical study of judicial waiver. J Crim Law Criminol 1996;86:449–92.10.2307/1144033Search in Google Scholar

94. Jensen E, Metsger L. A test of the deterrent effect of legislative waiver on violent juvenile crime. Crime Delinq 1994;46:96–104.10.1177/0011128794040001007Search in Google Scholar

95. Risler EA, Sweatman T, Nackerud L. Evaluating the Georgia legislative waiver’s effectiveness in deterring juvenile crime. Res Social Work Pract 1998;8:657–67.10.1177/104973159800800603Search in Google Scholar

96. Corriero M. Juvenile justice reform in New York: Judging children as children: reclaiming New York’s progressive tradition. NYL Sch Law Rev 2011/2012;56:1413–30.Search in Google Scholar

97. Independent Budget Office of the City of New York. New York City by the numbers. Available at: http://ibo.nyc.ny.us/cgi-park2/?p=516. Accessed 20 June, 2014.Search in Google Scholar

98. Henrichson C, Levshin V. Cost-benefit analysis of raising the age of juvenile jurisdiction in North Carolina. New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 2011.Search in Google Scholar

99. Roman J. The economic impact of raising the age of juvenile jurisdiction in Connecticut: remarks before the Judiciary and Appropriations Committee, Connecticut General Assembly, February 21, 2006. Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2006.Search in Google Scholar

Received: 2014-6-26
Accepted: 2014-8-15
Published Online: 2014-11-20
Published in Print: 2015-5-1

©2015 by De Gruyter

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Editorial
  3. A role for psychiatry in parental override cases
  4. Reviews
  5. Forensic psychiatric evaluations: an overview of methods, ethical issues, and criminal and civil assessments
  6. Underage drinking: does the minimum age drinking law offer enough protection?
  7. The role of serotonin in adolescent suicide: theoretical, methodological, and clinical concerns
  8. Biological and environmental predictors of the dysregulation profile in children and adolescents: the story so far
  9. The role of serotonin in impulsive aggression, suicide, and homicide in adolescents and adults: a literature review
  10. Outliers in American juvenile justice: the need for statutory reform in North Carolina and New York
  11. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), substance use disorders, and criminality: a difficult problem with complex solutions
  12. Violence among young men: the importance of a gender-specific developmental approach to adolescent male suicide and homicide
  13. Adolescent mass shootings: developmental considerations in light of the Sandy Hook shooting
  14. Emotion regulation and adolescent suicide: a proposal for physician education
  15. Oxytocin and callous-unemotional traits: towards a social-cognitive approach to forensic analysis
  16. Suicide medical malpractice: an educational overview
  17. Alcohol and drug use among adolescents: an educational overview
  18. Original Article
  19. Victimization exposure and suicidal ideation among Spaniard adolescents evaluated at outpatient mental health services
  20. Short Communication
  21. Suicide risk assessment: searching for true positive
  22. Case Reports
  23. Taking a toy gun to school: a consideration of the determinants of adolescent forensic behavior in the aftermath of the Sandy Hook shooting
  24. Suicidal behavior in a medical professional with comorbid depression and substance use disorder: an educational case report
  25. Low testosterone in a young combat veteran with dual diagnosis and suicidal behavior: a case study
Downloaded on 21.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijamh-2015-5006/html
Scroll to top button