Abstract
There are severe concerns over the widespread presence of fake news on social media and the vulnerability of citizens to its influence. Prior research on fake news has largely focused on the potential threat it poses to democracy, and has payed less attention to an opposing behavior that has emerged in parallel and mitigates its effects: citizens’ corrective actions. This study seeks to examine the sociopolitical antecedents that drive citizens to correct fake news on social media. Drawing on panel survey data from Spain (T2 = 570), we explore the role that using social media for news, cross-cutting political discussion, and support for fake news censorship have on intention to correct misinformation on social media. Our findings clarify the positive associations between the use of social media for news, the frequency of cross-cutting discussion, and support for fake news censorship over the intention to correct misinformation. Briefly, our study shows how social media’s mix of news, misinformation and political disagreement can motivate users to undertake pro-social democratic behaviors like corrective actions.
Acknowledgments
This study has benefited from the support of the Community of Madrid through the research plan “Estímulo a la Investigación de Jóvenes Doctores” of the multiannual agreement with the UC3M (DEPROFAKE-CM-UC3M), within the framework of the V PRICIT (V Regional Plan of Scientific Research and Technological Innovation). The title of the project is “Defensa Proactiva Frente a la Ciberamenaza Desinformativa: Antecedentes, Consecuencias y Mecanismos de Detección y Predicción de Contenido Falso.”
References
Allen, J., Howland, B., Mobius, M., Rothschild, D., & Watts, D. J. (2020). Evaluating the fake news problem at the scale of the information ecosystem. Science Advances, 6(14), eaay3539. http://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay353910.1126/sciadv.aay3539Search in Google Scholar
Altay, S., Berriche, M., & Acerbi, A. (2023). Misinformation on misinformation: Conceptual and methodological challenges. Social Media + Society, 9(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305122115041210.1177/20563051221150412Search in Google Scholar
Arif, A., Robinson, J. J., Stanek, S. A., Fichet, E. S., Townsend, P., Worku, Z., & Starbird, K. (2017). A closer look at the self-correcting crowd: Examining corrections in online rumors. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1145/2998181.299829410.1145/2998181.2998294Search in Google Scholar
Baek, Y. M., Kang, H., & Kim, S. (2019). Fake news should be regulated because it influences both “others” and “me”: How and why the influence of presumed influence model should be extended. Mass Communication and Society, 22(3), 301–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2018.156207610.1080/15205436.2018.1562076Search in Google Scholar
Baptista, J. P., & Gradim, A. (2022). Online disinformation on Facebook: The spread of fake news during the Portuguese 2019 election. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 30(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2020.184341510.1080/14782804.2020.1843415Search in Google Scholar
Barnidge, M. (2017). Exposure to political disagreement in social media versus face-to-face and anonymous online settings. Political Communication, 34(2), 302–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2016.123563910.1080/10584609.2016.1235639Search in Google Scholar
Barnidge, M., & Rojas, H. (2014). Hostile media perceptions, presumed media influence, and political talk: Expanding the corrective action hypothesis. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 26(2), 135–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edt03210.1093/ijpor/edt032Search in Google Scholar
Bode, L., & Vraga, E. K. (2018). See something, say something: Correction of global health misinformation on social media. Health Communication, 33(9), 1131–1140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.133131210.1080/10410236.2017.1331312Search in Google Scholar
Boulianne, S., & Shehata, A. (2022). Age differences in online news consumption and online political expression in the United States, United Kingdom, and France. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 27(3), 763–783. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161221106027110.1177/19401612211060271Search in Google Scholar
Broda, E., & Strömbäck, J. (2024). Misinformation, disinformation, and fake news: Lessons from an interdisciplinary, systematic literature review. Annals of the International Communication Association, 48(2), 139–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2024.232373610.1080/23808985.2024.2323736Search in Google Scholar
Campos Rueda, M. (2023). Influence of public service media consumption on citizens’ perceptions of the need for public media: The moderating role of political ideology. International Journal of Communication, 17, 21. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/20751/4203Search in Google Scholar
Cheng, J. W., Mitomo, H., Kamplean, A., & Seo, Y. (2021). Lesser evil? Public opinion on regulating fake news in Japan, South Korea, and Thailand–A three-country comparison. Telecommunications Policy, 45(9), 102–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2021.10218510.1016/j.telpol.2021.102185Search in Google Scholar
Cheng, Y., & Luo, Y. (2020). The presumed influence of digital misinformation: Examining US public’s support for governmental restrictions versus corrective action in the COVID-19 pandemic. Online Information Review, 45(4), 834–852. https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/OIR-08-2020-038610.1108/OIR-08-2020-0386Search in Google Scholar
Choi, J., & Lee, J. K. (2022). Confusing effects of fake news on clarity of political information in the social media environment. Journalism Practice, 16(10), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2021.190397110.1080/17512786.2021.1903971Search in Google Scholar
Davison, W. P. (1983). The third-person effect in communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1086/26876310.1086/268763Search in Google Scholar
Dohle, M., Bernhard, U., & Kelm, O. (2017). Presumed media influences and demands for restrictions: Using panel data to examine the causal direction. Mass Communication and Society, 20(5), 595–613. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2017.130307210.1080/15205436.2017.1303072Search in Google Scholar
Dvir-Gvirsman, S., & Tsuriel, K. (2022). In an open relationship: Platformization of relations between news practitioners and their audiences. Journalism Studies, 23(11), 1308–1326. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2022.208414410.1080/1461670X.2022.2084144Search in Google Scholar
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022). The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(1), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y10.1038/s44159-021-00006-ySearch in Google Scholar
El País, & SER. (2024). El “desorden democrático” en España [The “democratic disorder” in Spain]. Retrieved September, 2024, from https://ep00.epimg.net/infografias/encuestas40db/2024/09-barometro/2024_09_barometro_democracia.pdfSearch in Google Scholar
Eveland, W. P., Jr., & Thomson, T. (2006). Is it talking, thinking, or both? A lagged dependent variable model of discussion effects on political knowledge. Journal of Communication, 56(3), 523–542. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00299.x10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00299.xSearch in Google Scholar
Festinger, L. (1962). A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2). Stanford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Freiling, I., Krause, N. M., Scheufele, D. A., & Brossard, D. (2023). Believing and sharing misinformation, fact-checks, and accurate information on social media: The role of anxiety during COVID-19. New Media & Society, 25(1), 141–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444821101145110.1177/14614448211011451Search in Google Scholar
Gil de Zúñiga, H., González-González, P., & Goyanes, M. (2025). Pathways to political persuasion: Linking online, social media, and fake news with political attitude change through political discussion. American Behavioral Scientist, 69(2), 240–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764222111827210.1177/00027642221118272Search in Google Scholar
Gil de Zúñiga, H., Molyneux, L., & Zheng, P. (2014). Social media, political expression, and political participation: Panel analysis of lagged and concurrent relationships. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 612–634. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.1210310.1111/jcom.12103Search in Google Scholar
Golan, G. J., & Lim, J. S. (2016). Third-person effect of ISIS’s recruitment propaganda: Online political self-efficacy and social media activism. International Journal of Communication, 10, 21, 4681–4701. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/5551/1792Search in Google Scholar
Goyanes, M., Inguanzo, I., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2025). Trolling and insulting others on social media in Spain: the role of social media news use, culture of impunity, and social media envy. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 22(2), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2024.234815010.1080/19331681.2024.2348150Search in Google Scholar
Goyanes, M., Jordá, B., & de Fuentes, J. M. (2025). From Lack of Concerns to Complicity: How Misinformation Concerns Influences Fake News Sharing on WhatsApp via the Partisan Legitimation of Fake News. Social Science Quarterly, 106(4), e70039.10.1111/ssqu.70039Search in Google Scholar
Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B., & Lazer, D. (2019). Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election. Science, 363(6425), 374–378. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau270610.1126/science.aau2706Search in Google Scholar
Hampton, K. N., Shin, I., & Lu, W. (2017). Social media and political discussion: when online presence silences offline conversation. Information, Communication & Society, 20(7), 1090–1107. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.121852610.1080/1369118X.2016.1218526Search in Google Scholar
Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing media systems. Three models of media and politics. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511790867Search in Google Scholar
Huber, B., Borah, P., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2021). Taking corrective action when exposed to fake news: The role of fake news literacy. Journal of Media Literacy Education Pre-Prints. https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jmle-preprints/2310.23860/JMLE-2022-14-2-1Search in Google Scholar
Jang, S. M., & Kim, J. K. (2018). Third person effects of fake news: Fake news regulation and media literacy interventions. Computers in Human Behavior, 80, 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.03410.1016/j.chb.2017.11.034Search in Google Scholar
Jeong, M., Zo, H., Lee, C. H., & Ceran, Y. (2019). Feeling displeasure from online social media postings: A study using cognitive dissonance theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.02.02110.1016/j.chb.2019.02.021Search in Google Scholar
Jordá, B., & Goyanes, M. (2022). The rear window effect: How users respond to political discussions and persuasive discourses in social media. International Journal of Communication, 16, 19. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/19027/3888Search in Google Scholar
Jordá, B., Cañedo, A., Bene, M., & Goyanes, M. (2021). Out-of-place content: How repetitive, offensive, and opinion-challenging social media posts shape users’ unfriending strategies in Spain. Social Sciences, 10(12), 460. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci1012046010.3390/socsci10120460Search in Google Scholar
Jordá, B., Goyanes, M., Borah, P., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2024). Social media symbiosis: Understanding the dynamics of online political persuasion in social media ecologies. Journalism, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884924127216410.1177/14648849241272164Search in Google Scholar
Kim, Y., & Chen, H. T. (2016). Social media and online political participation: The mediating role of exposure to cross-cutting and like-minded perspectives. Telematics and Informatics, 33(2), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2015.08.00810.1016/j.tele.2015.08.008Search in Google Scholar
Kim, B., Cooks, E., & Kim, Y. (2022). Thinking, checking and learning: Testing a moderated-mediation model of social media news use conditional upon elaboration on political knowledge via fact-checking. Online Information Review, 46(5), 920–936. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-12-2020-058410.1108/OIR-12-2020-0584Search in Google Scholar
Koo, A. Z. X., Su, M. H., Lee, S., Ahn, S. Y., & Rojas, H. (2021). What motivates people to correct misinformation? Examining the effects of third-person perceptions and perceived norms. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 65(1), 111–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2021.190389610.1080/08838151.2021.1903896Search in Google Scholar
Kubin, E., & Von Sikorski, C. (2021). The role of (social) media in political polarization: A systematic review. Annals of the International Communication Association, 45(3), 188–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2021.197607010.1080/23808985.2021.1976070Search in Google Scholar
Kuru, O., Campbell, S., Bayer, J., Baruh, L., Ling, R. (2022). encountering and correcting misinformation on WhatsApp: The roles of user motivations and trust in messaging group members. In H. Wasserman & D. Madrid-Morales (Eds.), Disinformation in the global south. Routledge.10.1002/9781119714491.ch7Search in Google Scholar
Lane, D. S., Kim, D. H., Lee, S. S., Weeks, B. E., & Kwak, N. (2017). From online disagreement to offline action: How diverse motivations for using social media can increase political information sharing and catalyze offline political participation. Social Media + Society, 3(3), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/205630511771627410.1177/2056305117716274Search in Google Scholar
Lim, J. S. (2017). The third-person effect of online advertising of cosmetic surgery: A path model for predicting restrictive versus corrective actions. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 94(4), 972–993. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769901668772210.1177/1077699016687722Search in Google Scholar
Lin, H., & Kim, Y. (2023). Learning from disagreement on social media: The mediating role of like-minded and cross-cutting discussion and the moderating role of fact-checking. Computers in Human Behavior, 139, 107558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.10755810.1016/j.chb.2022.107558Search in Google Scholar
Lu, Y., Heatherly, K. A., & Lee, J. K. (2016). Cross-cutting exposure on social networking sites: The effects of SNS discussion disagreement on political participation. Computers in Human Behavior, 59, 74–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.03010.1016/j.chb.2016.01.030Search in Google Scholar
Malhotra, P. (2024). Misinformation in WhatsApp family groups: Generational perceptions and correction considerations in a Meso-news space. Digital Journalism, 12(5), 594–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2023.221373110.1080/21670811.2023.2213731Search in Google Scholar
Marco-Franco, J. E., Pita-Barros, P., Vivas-Orts, D., González-de-Julián, S., & Vivas-Consuelo, D. (2021). COVID-19, fake news, and vaccines: Should regulation be implemented?. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 744, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph1802074410.3390/ijerph18020744Search in Google Scholar
Matthes, J., Knoll, J., Valenzuela, S., Hopmann, D. N., & Von Sikorski, C. (2019). A meta-analysis of the effects of cross-cutting exposure on political participation. Political Communication, 36(4), 523–542. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.161963810.1080/10584609.2019.1619638Search in Google Scholar
McIntyre, L. (2018). Post-truth. MIT Press.10.7551/mitpress/11483.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Min, S. J., & Wohn, D. Y. (2018). All the news that you don’t like: Cross-cutting exposure and political participation in the age of social media. Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.01510.1016/j.chb.2018.01.015Search in Google Scholar
Mutz, D. C. (2006). Hearing the other side: Deliberative versus participatory democracy. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511617201Search in Google Scholar
Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Robertson C. T., Ross Arguedas, A. A., Nielsen, R. K. (2024). Digital news report 2024. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2024Search in Google Scholar
Neyazi, T. A., Kalogeropoulos, A., & Nielsen, R. K. (2021). Misinformation concerns and online news participation among internet users in India. Social Media + Society, 7(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305121100901310.1177/20563051211009013Search in Google Scholar
Pasquetto, I. V., Jahani, E., Atreja, S., & Baum, M. (2022). Social debunking of misinformation on WhatsApp: The case for strong and in-group ties. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 6(Issue CSCW1), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1145/351296410.1145/3512964Search in Google Scholar
Pozas, A. (2024, December 17). El Gobierno obliga a los ‘influencers’ a rectificar igual que un medio de comunicación si lo pide el afectado [The Government forces ‘influencers’ to rectify the same as a media outlet if requested by the affected party]. elDiario.es. https://www.eldiario.es/politica/gobierno-obliga-influencers-rectificar-igual-medio-comunicacion-si-pide-afectado_1_11905109.html.Search in Google Scholar
Rojas, H. (2010). “Corrective” actions in the public sphere: How perceptions of media and media effects shape political behaviors. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 22(3), 343–363. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edq01810.1093/ijpor/edq018Search in Google Scholar
Rojas, H., Shah, D. V., & Faber, R. J. (1996). For the good of others: Censorship and the third-person effect. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 8(2), 163–186. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/8.2.16310.1093/ijpor/8.2.163Search in Google Scholar
Rossini, P., Stromer-Galley, J., Baptista, E. A., & Veiga de Oliveira, V. (2021). Dysfunctional information sharing on WhatsApp and Facebook: The role of political talk, cross-cutting exposure and social corrections. New Media & Society, 23(8), 2430–2451. https://doi.org/10.1177/146144482092805910.1177/1461444820928059Search in Google Scholar
Silverman, C. (2016). This analysis shows how viral fake election news stories outperformed real news on Facebook. Buzzfeed. https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election-newsoutperformed-real-news-on-facebook?utm_term=.ao5d1p6Km#.splljDyB4.Search in Google Scholar
Sun, Y. (2022). Verification upon exposure to COVID-19 Misinformation: Predictors, outcomes, and the mediating role of verification. Science Communication, 44(3), 261–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547022108892710.1177/10755470221088927Search in Google Scholar
Sun, Y., Chia, S. C., Lu, F., & Oktavianus, J. (2022). The battle is on: Factors that motivate people to combat anti-vaccine misinformation. Health Communication, 37(3), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.183810810.1080/10410236.2020.1838108Search in Google Scholar
Sun, Y., Oktavianus, J., Wang, S., & Lu, F. (2021). The role of influence of presumed influence and anticipated guilt in evoking social correction of COVID-19 misinformation. Health Communication, 37(11), 1368–1377. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.188845210.1080/10410236.2021.1888452Search in Google Scholar
Tandoc Jr, E. C., Lim, D., & Ling, R. (2020). Diffusion of disinformation: How social media users respond to fake news and why. Journalism, 21(3), 381–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/146488491986832510.1177/1464884919868325Search in Google Scholar
Tsfati, Y. (2016). A new measure for the tendency to select ideologically congruent political information: Scale development and validation. International Journal of Communication, 10, 26, 200–225. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/3688/1534Search in Google Scholar
Valenzuela, S., Bachmann, I., & Bargsted, M. (2019). The personal is the political? What do WhatsApp users share and how it matters for news knowledge, polarization and participation in Chile. Digital Journalism, 9(2), 155–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2019.169390410.1080/21670811.2019.1693904Search in Google Scholar
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap955910.1126/science.aap9559Search in Google Scholar
Vraga, E. K., & Bode, L. (2018). I do not believe you: How providing a source corrects health misperceptions across social media platforms. Information, Communication & Society, 21(10), 1337–1353. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.131388310.1080/1369118X.2017.1313883Search in Google Scholar
Wagner, M. C., & Boczkowski, P. J. (2019). The reception of fake news: The interpretations and practices that shape the consumption of perceived misinformation. Digital journalism, 7(7), 870–885. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2019.165320810.1080/21670811.2019.1653208Search in Google Scholar
Wojcieszak, M. (2009). “Carrying online participation offline” – Mobilization by radical online groups and politically dissimilar offline ties. Journal of Communication, 59(3), 564–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01436.x10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01436.xSearch in Google Scholar
Yang, F., & Horning, M. (2020). Reluctant to share: How third person perceptions of fake news discourage news readers from sharing “real news” on social media. Social Media+ Society, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/205630512095517310.1177/2056305120955173Search in Google Scholar
© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston