Home Individual-based numerical experiment to describe the distribution of floating kelp within the Southern Benguela Upwelling System
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Individual-based numerical experiment to describe the distribution of floating kelp within the Southern Benguela Upwelling System

  • Ross Coppin

    Dr Ross Coppin is a marine ecologist specializing in kelp forest ecology. He earned his PhD from the University of the Western Cape, where he pioneered a novel Lagrangian trajectory modelling approach to study macroalgae distribution. Ross’s work focuses on the role of the abiotic environment in ecosystem functioning. His work encompasses research, data analysis, sustainability, environmental impact assessments, and public participation processes for various organizations and research institutions.

     ORCID logo EMAIL logo     , Christo Rautenbach

    Dr Christo Rautenbach is a distinguished double PhD holder, excelling in Applied Mathematics and Physical Oceanography. With an extensive background in numerical modelling spanning over a decade, he is an expert in coastal and ocean hydro- and wave dynamics. His expertise encompasses operational physical oceanography, coastal engineering, and coastal dynamics research. As a seasoned project manager and team leader, he spearheads applied research initiatives, integrating data science and artificial intelligence methodologies.

     ORCID logo     and Albertus J. Smit

    Professor Albertus J. Smit, a marine scientist, applies innovative statistical methods to vast environmental and biological datasets. His critical perspective drives research into pressing ecological and environmental issues crucial for human well-being. Aligned with national strategies, his work spans global change, marine research, and biodiversity, supporting Sustainable Development Goals. Proficient in diverse hardware, computing, and software tools, his expertise focuses on oceanic climate change. With a string of impactful publications and successful grant acquisitions, Smit’s leadership ensures program completion and fosters inclusive, transdisciplinary collaborations for actionable research outcomes.

     ORCID logo
Published/Copyright: September 3, 2024
Botanica Marina
From the journal Botanica Marina Volume 67 Issue 5

Abstract

Kelps are resilient organisms, capable of thriving in high-energy wave environments. However, when hydrodynamic drag forces exerted by the wave environment exceed the kelps’ structural limits, individuals become dislodged. Floating kelps generally follow ocean currents, traveling long distances until air-filled structures fail or the epibiont load becomes too great, causing them to sink to the seafloor. The ability of kelp to disperse over vast offshore and nearshore systems makes them important for organic subsidy and as a dispersal vector for marine organisms. Previous research on dislodged macroalgae focused on context-specific rafts, limiting insights into the broader ecological role of floating kelp. This study employed a site-specific Lagrangian trajectory model to describe the spatial distribution of floating Ecklonia maxima along the South African coastline. The model incorporated buoyancy and sinking using site-specific morphological data. Findings revealed that the distribution of floating E. maxima is influenced by oceanographic conditions, and seasonal patterns were also evident. Mesoscale features played a vital role in kelp accumulation on the surface and seafloor and acted as barriers to dispersal. This study offers essential insights into kelp’s role as an organic subsidy and provides numerical evidence for kelp’s potential as a carbon sink, contributing to a better understanding of kelp ecosystems and their ecological functions.

Keywords: kelp; organic subsidy; buoyancy; sinking; mesoscale
Corresponding author: Ross Coppin, Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville 7535, South Africa, E-mail:

Funding source: South African National Research Foundation

Award Identifier / Grant number: CSRP170430229220

About the authors

Ross Coppin

Dr Ross Coppin is a marine ecologist specializing in kelp forest ecology. He earned his PhD from the University of the Western Cape, where he pioneered a novel Lagrangian trajectory modelling approach to study macroalgae distribution. Ross’s work focuses on the role of the abiotic environment in ecosystem functioning. His work encompasses research, data analysis, sustainability, environmental impact assessments, and public participation processes for various organizations and research institutions.

Christo Rautenbach

Dr Christo Rautenbach is a distinguished double PhD holder, excelling in Applied Mathematics and Physical Oceanography. With an extensive background in numerical modelling spanning over a decade, he is an expert in coastal and ocean hydro- and wave dynamics. His expertise encompasses operational physical oceanography, coastal engineering, and coastal dynamics research. As a seasoned project manager and team leader, he spearheads applied research initiatives, integrating data science and artificial intelligence methodologies.

Albertus J. Smit

Professor Albertus J. Smit, a marine scientist, applies innovative statistical methods to vast environmental and biological datasets. His critical perspective drives research into pressing ecological and environmental issues crucial for human well-being. Aligned with national strategies, his work spans global change, marine research, and biodiversity, supporting Sustainable Development Goals. Proficient in diverse hardware, computing, and software tools, his expertise focuses on oceanic climate change. With a string of impactful publications and successful grant acquisitions, Smit’s leadership ensures program completion and fosters inclusive, transdisciplinary collaborations for actionable research outcomes.

Acknowledgments

This paper would not have been possible without the OceanParcels open-source software (available from: https://oceanparcels.org/). This study also uses ocean and wind model data from Copernicus Marine Data Store. The products used in this study have been updated/changed and therefore do no longer exist. However, the data sets used in this study can be provided upon request from the author.

  1. Research ethics: The processes and procedures are undertaken over the duration of this study abided by national laws and permit conditions.

  2. Author contributions: Ross Coppin conceptualised the scope of the research reported in this manuscript, designed the model, conducted the simulations, undertook the numerical and statistical analyses, made the first round of interpretation, and did the writing. AJ Smit and Christo Rautenbach provided guidance in writing, statistical analyses, and overall presentation of the manuscript. The authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Competing interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

  4. Research funding: This research was funded by the South African National Research Foundation (http://www.nrf.ac.za). The funding number is CSRP170430229220. Aside from the funding provided, the funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, publication decision, or manuscript preparation.

  5. Data availability: The raw data can be obtained on request from the corresponding author.

References

Anderson, R.J., Carrick, P., Levitt, G.J., and Share, A. (1997). Holdfasts of adult kelp Ecklonia maxima provide refuges from grazing for recruitment of juvenile kelps. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 159: 265–273, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps159265.Search in Google Scholar

Bakun, A. (2006). Fronts and eddies as key structures in the habitat of marine fish larvae: opportunity, adaptive response and competitive advantage. Sci. Mar. 70: 105–122, https://doi.org/10.3989/scimar.2006.70s2105.Search in Google Scholar

Beal, L.M., Elipot, S., Houk, A., and Leber, G.M. (2015). Capturing the transport variability of a western boundary jet: results from the Agulhas Current Time-Series Experiment (ACT). J. Phys. Oceanogr. 45: 1302–1324, https://doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-14-0119.1.Search in Google Scholar

Bekkby, T., Rinde, E., Gundersen, H., Norderhaug, K.M., Gitmark, J.K., and Christie, H. (2014). Length, strength and water flow: relative importance of wave and current exposure on morphology in kelp Laminaria hyperborea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 506: 61–70, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10778.Search in Google Scholar

Bernardes Batista, M., Batista Anderson, A., Franzan Sanches, P., Simionatto Polito, P., Cesar Lima Silveira, T., Velez-Rubio, G.M., Scarabino, F., Camacho, O., Schmitz, C., Martinez, A., et al.. (2018). Kelps’ long-distance dispersal: role of ecological/oceanographic processes and implications to marine forest conservation. Diversity 10: 11, https://doi.org/10.3390/d10010011.Search in Google Scholar

Beron‐Vera, F.J., Olascoaga, M.J., and Lumpkin, R. (2016). Inertia‐induced accumulation of flotsam in the subtropical gyres. Geophys. Res. Lett. 43, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gl071443.Search in Google Scholar

Blamey, L.K. and Bolton, J.J. (2018). The economic value of South African kelp forests and temperate reefs: past, present and future. J. Mar. Syst. 188: 172–181, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2017.06.003.Search in Google Scholar

Blanke, B., Roy, C., Penven, P., Speich, S., McWilliams, J., Nelson, G. (2002). Linking wind and interannual upwelling variability in a regional model of the southern Benguela. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002gl015718,Search in Google Scholar

Blanke, B., Speich, S., Bentamy, A., Roy, C., and Sow, B. (2005). Modeling the structure and variability of the southern Benguela upwelling using QuikSCAT wind forcing. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 110: 2004JC002529, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004jc002529.Search in Google Scholar

Bolton, J., Anderson, R., Smit, A., and Rothman, M. (2012). South African kelp moving eastwards: the discovery of Ecklonia maxima (Osbeck) Papenfuss at De Hoop Nature Reserve on the south coast of South Africa. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 34: 147–151, https://doi.org/10.2989/1814232x.2012.675125.Search in Google Scholar

Bracco, A., Provenzale, A., and Scheuring, I. (2000) Mesoscale vortices and the paradox of the plankton. Proc. R. Soc. London. B Biol. Sci. 267: 1795–1800, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.1212.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Brach, L., Deixonne, P., Bernard, M.-F., Durand, E., Desjean, M.-C., Perez, E., van Sebille, E., and Ter Halle, A. (2018). Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 126: 191–196, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.10.077.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Brooks, M.T., Coles, V.J., and Coles, W.C. (2019). Inertia influences pelagic Sargassum advection and distribution. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46: 2610–2618, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018gl081489.Search in Google Scholar

Bryan, S.E., Cook, A., Evans, J.P., Colls, P.W., Wells, M.G., Lawrence, M.G., Jell, J.S., Greig, A., and Leslie, R. (2004). Pumice rafting and faunal dispersion during 2001–2002 in the Southwest Pacific: record of a dacitic submarine explosive eruption from Tonga. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 227: 135–154, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.08.009.Search in Google Scholar

Clark, R.P., Edwards, M.S., and Foster, M.S. (2004). Effects of shade from multiple kelp canopies on an understory algal assemblage. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 267: 107–119, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps267107.Search in Google Scholar

Coppin, R., Rautenbach, C., Ponton, T.J., and Smit, A.J. (2020). Investigating waves and temperature as drivers of kelp morphology. Front. Mar. Sci. 7: 567, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00567.Search in Google Scholar

Coppin, R., Rautenbach, C., and Smit, A.J. (2024). Numerical experiments investigating the influence of drag on trajectory patterns of floating macroalgae. Bot. Mar. 67: 449–468.10.1515/bot-2023-0059Search in Google Scholar

Craw, D. and Waters, J. (2018). Long distance kelp-rafting of rocks around southern New Zealand. New Zealand J. Geol. Geophys. 61: 428–443, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2018.1492424.Search in Google Scholar

D’Asaro, E.A., Carlson, D.F., Chamecki, M., Harcourt, R.R., Haus, B.K., Fox-Kemper, B., Molemaker, M.J., Poje, A.C., and Yang, D. (2020). Advances in observing and understanding small-scale open ocean circulation during the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative Era. Front. Mar. Sci. 7: 349, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00349.Search in Google Scholar

D’Asaro, E.A., Shcherbina, A.Y., Klymak, J.M., Molemaker, J., Novelli, G., Guigand, C.M., Haza, A.C., Haus, B.K., Ryan, E.H., Jacobs, G.A., et al.. (2018). Ocean convergence and the dispersion of flotsam. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 115: 1162–1167, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718453115.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Dietrich, W.E. (1982). Settling velocity of natural particles. Water Resour. Res. 18: 1615–1626, https://doi.org/10.1029/wr018i006p01615.Search in Google Scholar

Dyer, D.C., Butler, M.J., Smit, A.J., Anderson, R.J., and Bolton, J.J. (2019). Kelp forest POM during upwelling and downwelling conditions: using stable isotopes to differentiate between detritus and phytoplankton. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 619: 17–34, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12941.Search in Google Scholar

Filbee-Dexter, K. and Scheibling, R.E. (2014). Detrital kelp subsidy supports high reproductive condition of deep-living sea urchins in a sedimentary basin. Aquat. Biol. 23: 71–86, https://doi.org/10.3354/ab00607.Search in Google Scholar

Filbee-Dexter, K. and Scheibling, R.E. (2016). Spatial patterns and predictors of drift algal subsidy in deep subtidal environments. Estuar. Coast. 39: 1724–1734, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-016-0101-5.Search in Google Scholar

Filbee-Dexter, K. and Wernberg, T. (2020). Substantial blue carbon in overlooked Australian kelp forests. Sci. Rep. 10: 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69258-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Filbee-Dexter, K., Wernberg, T., Norderhaug, K.M., Ramirez-Llodra, E., and Pedersen, M.F. (2018). Movement of pulsed resource subsidies from kelp forests to deep fjords. Oecologia 187: 291–304, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-018-4121-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Fowler-Walker, M.J., Connell, S.D., and Gillanders, B.M. (2005). To what extent do geographic and associated environmental variables correlate with kelp morphology across temperate Australia? Mar. Freshw. Res. 56: 877–887, https://doi.org/10.1071/mf05042.Search in Google Scholar

Fraser, C.I., Nikula, R., and Waters, J.M. (2011) Oceanic rafting by a coastal community. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 278: 649–655, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.1117.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Garzoli, S.L., Gordon, A.L., Kamenkovich, V., Pillsbury, D., and Duncombe-Rae, C. (1996). Variability and sources of the southeastern Atlantic circulation. J. Mar. Res. 54: 1039–1071, https://doi.org/10.1357/0022240963213763.Search in Google Scholar

Gentle, R.I. (1987). The geology of the inner continental shelf and Agulhas Arch: Cape Town to Port Elizabeth, 20th ed. Marine Geoscience Unit, University of Cape Town, p. 129.Search in Google Scholar

Gilson, A.R., Smale, D.A., Burrows, M.T., and Connor, N.E. (2021). Spatio-temporal variability in the deposition of beach-cast kelp (wrack) and inter-specific differences in degradation rates. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 674: 89–102, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps13825.Search in Google Scholar

Graiff, A., Karsten, U., Meyer, S., Pfender, D., Tala, F., and Thiel, M. (2013). Seasonal variation in floating persistence of detached Durvillaea antarctica (Chamisso) Hariot thalli. Bot. Mar. 56: 3–14, https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2012-0193.Search in Google Scholar

Graiff, A., Pantoja, J.F., Tala, F., and Thiel, M. (2016). Epibiont load causes sinking of viable kelp rafts: seasonal variation in floating persistence of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera. Mar. Biol. 163: 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-016-2962-3.Search in Google Scholar

Harrold, C. and Lisin, S. (1989). Radio-tracking rafts of giant kelp: local production and regional transport. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 130: 237–251, https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(89)90166-4.Search in Google Scholar

Highsmith, R.C. (1985). Floating and algal rafting as potential dispersal mechanisms in brooding invertebrates. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 25: 169–179, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps025169.Search in Google Scholar

Hobday, A.J. (2000a). Abundance and dispersal of drifting kelp Macrocystis pyrifera rafts in the Southern California Bight. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 195: 101–116, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps195101.Search in Google Scholar

Hobday, A.J. (2000b). Age of drifting Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C. Agardh rafts in the southern California Bight. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 253: 97–114, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-0981(00)00255-0.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Holmquist, J.G. (1994). Benthic macroalgae as a dispersal mechanism for fauna: influence of a marine tumbleweed. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 180: 235–251, https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(94)90069-8.Search in Google Scholar

Howard, J., Sutton-Grier, A., Herr, D., Kleypas, J., Landis, E., Mcleod, E., Pidgeon, E., and Simpson, S. (2017). Clarifying the role of coastal and marine systems in climate mitigation. Front. Ecol. Environ. 15: 42–50, https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1451.Search in Google Scholar

Hurd, C.L. (2000). Water motion, marine macroalgal physiology, and production. J. Phycol. 36: 453–472, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1529-8817.2000.99139.x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Hutchings, L., Van der Lingen, C.D., Shannon, L.J., Crawford, R.J.M., Verheye, H.M.S., Bartholomae, C.H., Van der Plas, A.K., Louw, D., Kreiner, A., Ostrowski, M., et al.. (2009). The Benguela Current: an ecosystem of four components. Prog. Oceanogr. 83: 15–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2009.07.046.Search in Google Scholar

Ingólfsson, A. (1995). Floating clumps of seaweed around Iceland: natural microcosms and a means of dispersal for shore fauna. Mar. Biol. 122: 13–21, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00349273.Search in Google Scholar

Joska, M.A.P. and Bolton, J.J. (1987). In situ measurement of zoospore release and seasonality of reproduction in Ecklonia maxima (Alariaceae, Laminariales). Br. Phycol. J. 22: 209–214, https://doi.org/10.1080/00071618700650251.Search in Google Scholar

Jutzeler, M., Marsh, R., Van Sebille, E., Mittal, T., Carey, R.J., Fauria, K.E., Manga, M., and McPhie, J. (2020). Ongoing dispersal of the 7 August 2019 pumice raft from the Tonga arc in the Southwestern Pacific ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47: e1701121, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019gl086768.Search in Google Scholar

Keith, S.A., Herbert, R.J.H., Norton, P.A., Hawkins, S.J., and Newton, A.C. (2011). Individualistic species limitations of climate‐induced range expansions generated by meso‐scale dispersal barriers. Divers. Distrib. 17: 275–286, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00734.x.Search in Google Scholar

Kingsford, M.J. (1992). Drift algae and small fish in coastal waters of northeastern New Zealand. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 80: 41–55, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps080041.Search in Google Scholar

Kingsford, M.J. (1995). Drift algae: a contribution to near-shore habitat complexity in the pelagic environment and an attractant for fish. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 116: 297–301, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps116297.Search in Google Scholar

Kooi, M., Nes, E.H.V., Scheffer, M., and Koelmans, A.A. (2017). Ups and downs in the ocean: effects of biofouling on vertical transport of microplastics. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51: 7963–7971, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04702.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Krumhansl, K.A. and Scheibling, R.E. (2012). Production and fate of kelp detritus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 467: 281–302, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09940.Search in Google Scholar

Leliaert, F., Anderson, R.J., Bolton, J.J., and Coppejans, E. (2000). Subtidal understorey algal community structure in kelp beds around the Cape Peninsula (Western Cape, South Africa). Bot. Mar. 43: 359–366, https://doi.org/10.1515/BOT.2000.036.Search in Google Scholar

Lobelle, D., Kooi, M., Koelmans, A.A., Laufkötter, C., Jongedijk, C.E., Kehl, C., and Van Sebille, E. (2021). Global modeled sinking characteristics of biofouled microplastic. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 126: e2020JC017098, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020jc017098.Search in Google Scholar

Lutjeharms, J.R.E. (2007). Three decades of research on the greater Agulhas Current. Ocean Sci. 3: 129–147, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-3-129-2007.Search in Google Scholar

Lutjeharms, J.R.E., Cooper, J., and Roberts, M. (2000). Upwelling at the inshore edge of the Agulhas current. Continent. Shelf Res. 20: 737–761, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0278-4343(99)00092-8.Search in Google Scholar

Lutjeharms, J.R.E. and Van Ballegooyen, R.C. (1988). The retroflection of the Agulhas current. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 18: 1570–1583, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1988)018<1570:trotac>2.0.co;2.10.1175/1520-0485(1988)018<1570:TROTAC>2.0.CO;2Search in Google Scholar

Ma, G., Kirby, J.T., Su, S.-F., Figlus, J., and Shi, F. (2013). Numerical study of turbulence and wave damping induced by vegetation canopies. Coast. Eng. 80: 68–78, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2013.05.007.Search in Google Scholar

Macaya, E.C., Boltaña, S., Hinojosa, I.A., Macchiavello, J.E., Valdivia, N.A., Vásquez, N.R., Buschmann, A.H., Vásquez, J.A., Alonso Vega, J.M., and Thiel, M. (2005). Presence of sporophylls in floating kelp rafts of Macrocystis spp. (Phaeophyceae) along the Chilean Pacific coast. J. Phycol. 41: 913–922, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00118.x.Search in Google Scholar

Macaya, E.C., López, B., Tala, F., Tellier, F., and Thiel, M. (2016) Float and raft: role of buoyant seaweeds in the phylogeography and genetic structure of non-buoyant associated flora. In: Hu, Z.-M., and Fraser, C. (Eds.). Seaweed phylogeography. Springer, Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 97–130.10.1007/978-94-017-7534-2_4Search in Google Scholar

McCormick, T.B., Buckley, L.M., Brogan, J., and Perry, L.M. (2008). Drift macroalgae as a potential dispersal mechanism for the white abalone Haliotis sorenseni. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 362: 225–232, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07419.Search in Google Scholar

McGillicuddy, D.J., Anderson, L.A., Doney, S.C., and Maltrud, M.E. (2003). Eddy‐driven sources and sinks of nutrients in the upper ocean: results from a 0.1° resolution model of the North Atlantic. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 17: 2002GB001987, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002gb001987.Search in Google Scholar

Michaud, K.M., Emery, K.A., Dugan, J.E., Hubbard, D.M., and Miller, R.J. (2019). Wrack resource use by intertidal consumers on sandy beaches. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 221: 66–71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2019.03.014.Search in Google Scholar

Monismith, S.G., Alnajjar, M.W., Woodson, C.B., Boch, C.A., Hernandez, A., Vazquez‐Vera, L., Bell, T.W., and Micheli, F. (2022). Influence of kelp forest biomass on nearshore currents. J. Geophys. Res.: Oceans 127: e2021JC018333, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021jc018333.Search in Google Scholar

Morrow, R. and Le Traon, P.Y. (2012). Recent advances in observing mesoscale ocean dynamics with satellite altimetry. Adv. Space Res. 50: 1062–1076, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2011.09.033.Search in Google Scholar

Nikula, R., Spencer, H.G., and Waters, J.M. (2013). Passive rafting is a powerful driver of transoceanic gene flow. Biol. Lett. 9: 20120821, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0821.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Onink, V., Wichmann, D., Delandmeter, P., and Van Sebille, E. (2019). The Role of Ekman currents, geostrophy, and Stokes drift in the accumulation of floating microplastic. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 124: 1474–1490, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jc014547.Search in Google Scholar

Pegliasco, C., Chaigneau, A., and Morrow, R. (2015). Main eddy vertical structures observed in the four major Eastern Boundary Upwelling Systems. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 120: 6008–6033, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015jc010950.Search in Google Scholar

Putman, N.F., Goni, G.J., Gramer, L.J., Hu, C., Johns, E.M., Trinanes, J., and Wang, M. (2018). Simulating transport pathways of pelagic sargassum from the equatorial Atlantic into the Caribbean Sea. Prog. Oceanogr. 165: 205–214, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2018.06.009.Search in Google Scholar

Putman, N.F., Lumpkin, R., Olascoaga, M.J., Trinanes, J., and Goni, G.J. (2020). Improving transport predictions of pelagic Sargassum. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 529: 151–398, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2020.151398.Search in Google Scholar

Ragoasha, N., Herbette, S., Cambon, G., Veitch, J., Reason, C., and Roy, C. (2019). Lagrangian pathways in the southern Benguela upwelling system. J. Mar. Syst. 195: 50–66, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2019.03.008.Search in Google Scholar

Ramirez-Llodra, E., Pedersen, T., Dexter, K.F., Hauquier, F., Guilini, K., Mikkelsen, N., Borgersen, G., Van Gyseghem, M., Vanreusel, A., and Vilas, D. (2021). Community structure of deep fjord and shelf benthic fauna receiving different detrital kelp inputs in northern Norway. Deep Sea Res. Part I: Oceanogr. Res. Pap. 168: 103433, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2020.103433.Search in Google Scholar

Rothäusler, E., Gómez, I., Hinojosa, I.A., Karsten, U., Miranda, L., Tala, F., and Thiel, M. (2011). Kelp rafts in the Humboldt Current: interplay of abiotic and biotic factors limit their floating persistence and dispersal potential. Limnol. Oceanogr. 56: 1751–1763, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2011.56.5.1751.Search in Google Scholar

Rothman, M.D., Bolton, J.J., Stekoll, M.S., Boothroyd, C.J., Kemp, F.A., and Anderson, R.J. (2017). Geographical variation in morphology of the two dominant kelp species, Ecklonia maxima and Laminaria pallida (Phaeophyceae, Laminariales), on the west coast of Southern Africa. J. Appl. Phycol. 29: 2627–2639, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-017-1255-7.Search in Google Scholar

Rubio, A., Blanke, B., Speich, S., Grima, N., and Roy, C. (2009). Mesoscale eddy activity in the southern Benguela upwelling system from satellite altimetry and model data. Prog. Oceanogr. 83: 288–295, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2009.07.029.Search in Google Scholar

Schiel, D.R. and Foster, M.S. (2015). The biology and ecology of giant kelp forests. Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.10.1525/california/9780520278868.001.0001Search in Google Scholar

Seymour, R., Tegner, M., Dayton, P., and Parnell, P. (1989). Storm wave induced mortality of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, in southern California. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 28: 277–292, https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7714(89)90018-8.Search in Google Scholar

Smale, D.A. and Moore, P.J. (2017). Variability in kelp forest structure along a latitudinal gradient in ocean temperature. J. Expe. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 486: 255–264, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2016.10.023.Search in Google Scholar

Smale, D.A., Moore, P.J., Queirós, A.M., Higgs, S., and Burrows, M.T. (2018). Appreciating interconnectivity between habitats is key to blue carbon management. Front. Ecol. Environ. 16: 71–73, https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1765.Search in Google Scholar

Smit, A.J. (2004). Medicinal and pharmaceutical uses of seaweed natural products: a review. J. Appl. Phycol. 16: 245–262, https://doi.org/10.1023/b:japh.0000047783.36600.ef.10.1023/B:JAPH.0000047783.36600.efSearch in Google Scholar

Smith, S.D. (2002). Kelp rafts in the southern ocean. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 11: 67–69, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1466-822x.2001.00259.x.Search in Google Scholar

Spall, M.A. (1995). Frontogenesis, subduction, and cross-front exchange at upper ocean fronts. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 100: 2543–2557, https://doi.org/10.1029/94jc02860.Search in Google Scholar

Steneck, R.S., Graham, M.H., Bourque, B.J., Corbett, D., Erlandson, J.M., Estes, J.A., and Tegner, M.J. (2002). Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environ. Conserv. 29: 436–459, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0376892902000322.Search in Google Scholar

Tala, F., Gómez, I., Luna-Jorquera, G., and Thiel, M. (2013). Morphological, physiological and reproductive conditions of rafting bull kelp (Durvillaea antarctica) in northern-central Chile (30° S). Mar. Biol. 160: 1339–1351, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-013-2186-8.Search in Google Scholar

Tala, F., López, B.A., Velásquez, M., Jeldres, R., Macaya, E.C., Mansilla, A., Ojeda, J., and Thiel, M. (2019). Long-term persistence of the floating bull kelp Durvillaea antarctica from the South-East Pacific: potential contribution to local and transoceanic connectivity. Mar. Environ. Res. 149: 67–79, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2019.05.013.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Thiel, M. and Gutow, L. (2005). The ecology of rafting in the marine environment. II. The rafting organisms and community. In: Oceanography and marine biology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, pp. 289–428.10.1201/9781420037449-9Search in Google Scholar

Thomsen, M.S., Wernberg, T., and Kendrick, G.A. (2004). The effect of thallus size, life stage, aggregation, wave exposure and substratum conditions on the forces required to break or dislodge the small kelp Ecklonia radiata. Bot. Mar. 47: 454–460, https://doi.org/10.1515/bot.2004.068.Search in Google Scholar

Troell, M., Robertson-Andersson, D., Anderson, R.J., Bolton, J.J., Maneveldt, G., Halling, C., and Probyn, T. (2006). Abalone farming in South Africa: an overview with perspectives on kelp resources, abalone feed, potential for on-farm seaweed production and socio-economic importance. Aquaculture 257: 266–281, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.02.066.Search in Google Scholar

Van Sebille, E., Griffies, S.M., Abernathey, R., Adams, T.P., Berloff, P., Biastoch, A., Blanke, B., Chassignet, E.P., Cheng, Y., Cotter, C.J., et al.. (2018). Lagrangian ocean analysis: fundamentals and practices. Ocean Model. 121: 49–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2017.11.008.Search in Google Scholar

Vásquez, J.A., Zuñiga, S., Tala, F., Piaget, N., Rodríguez, D.C., and Vega, J.A. (2014). Economic valuation of kelp forests in northern Chile: values of goods and services of the ecosystem. J. Appl. Phycol. 26: 1081–1088, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-0173-6.Search in Google Scholar

Veitch, J., Hermes, J., Lamont, T., Penven, P., and Dufois, F. (2018). Shelf-edge jet currents in the southern Benguela: a modelling approach. J. Mar. Syst. 188: 27–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2017.09.003.Search in Google Scholar

Veitch, J., Penven, P., and Shillington, F. (2010). Modeling equilibrium dynamics of the Benguela current system. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 40: 1942–1964, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010jpo4382.1.Search in Google Scholar

Veitch, J.A. and Penven, P. (2017). The role of the A gulhas in the Benguela current system: a numerical modeling approach. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 122: 3375–3393, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jc012247.Search in Google Scholar

Waters, J.M., King, T.M., Fraser, C.I., and Craw, D. (2018). Crossing the front: contrasting storm-forced dispersal dynamics revealed by biological, geological and genetic analysis of beach-cast kelp. J. R. Soc. Interface 15: 20180046, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2018.0046.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Wernberg, T. and Goldberg, N. (2008). Short-term temporal dynamics of algal species in a subtidal kelp bed in relation to changes in environmental conditions and canopy biomass. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 76: 265–272, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2007.07.008.Search in Google Scholar

Woodborne, M., Rogers, J., and Jarman, N. (1989). The geological significance of kelp-rafted rock along the west coast of South Africa. Geo-Mar. Lett. 9: 109–118, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02430432.Search in Google Scholar

Supplementary Material

This article contains supplementary material (https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2023-0061).

Received: 2023-08-04
Accepted: 2024-06-19
Published Online: 2024-09-03
Published in Print: 2024-10-28

© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. In this issue
  3. Editorial
  4. Kelp ecology, applications and potential for aquaculture in Southern Africa
  5. Kelp Forest Review and Management
  6. The African seaforest: a review
  7. Embracing diversity: enhancing the management of South Africa’s kelp forests in an era of change
  8. Modelling in Kelp Ecology
  9. Numerical experiments investigating the influence of drag on trajectory patterns of floating macroalgae
  10. Individual-based numerical experiment to describe the distribution of floating kelp within the Southern Benguela Upwelling System
  11. Kelp Products and Their Uses
  12. Chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis of alginate: a review
  13. Extraction and characterisation of sodium alginate from the Southern African seaweed Ecklonia maxima
  14. Potential for Kelp Aquaculture
  15. The potential for kelp (order Laminariales) aquaculture in South Africa: a biological review
  16. Considerations for kelp aquaculture on South Africa’s west coast: geospatial analysis and research implications
https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2023-0061
Keywords for this article
kelp; organic subsidy; buoyancy; sinking; mesoscale

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. In this issue
  3. Editorial
  4. Kelp ecology, applications and potential for aquaculture in Southern Africa
  5. Kelp Forest Review and Management
  6. The African seaforest: a review
  7. Embracing diversity: enhancing the management of South Africa’s kelp forests in an era of change
  8. Modelling in Kelp Ecology
  9. Numerical experiments investigating the influence of drag on trajectory patterns of floating macroalgae
  10. Individual-based numerical experiment to describe the distribution of floating kelp within the Southern Benguela Upwelling System
  11. Kelp Products and Their Uses
  12. Chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis of alginate: a review
  13. Extraction and characterisation of sodium alginate from the Southern African seaweed Ecklonia maxima
  14. Potential for Kelp Aquaculture
  15. The potential for kelp (order Laminariales) aquaculture in South Africa: a biological review
  16. Considerations for kelp aquaculture on South Africa’s west coast: geospatial analysis and research implications
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 23.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/bot-2023-0061/html
Scroll to top button