Abstract
According to the Peruvian Constitution, the legal minimum age for child workers is 12 years old, making it the youngest level in Latin America and among other continents. More than 2 million children in Peru are employed in agriculture, gold mines, as domestic workers and street sellers. Peru is one of the latest countries where conditional cash transfers have been implemented in Latin America. This paper addresses the debate on conditional versus unconditional cash transfers in enhancing school attendance and consequently eradicating child labour and the broader question of targeted versus universal approaches in basic rights and income. Factors such as household’s vulnerability, which can potentially lead to child labour, are highlighted. This paper also examines the method of targeting and the exclusion of groups at greater risk such as street children and single mothers. It uses recent quantitative data from the World Bank and the Peruvian government (2011) and data collected from interviews with programme executives of United Nations agencies and NGOs. It concludes that the only sustainable way to enhance the life chances of Peruvian children is to create strong mechanisms of social protection, such as basic services and income, that are available to every household.
Abbreviations and definitions
- BCRP
Banco Central de Reserva del Peru (Central Bank of Peru)
- CCT
Conditional Cash Transfers
- CDL
Child Domestic Labour
- CEPAL
Comisión Económica para América Latina (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean)
- CIES
Consorcio de Investigación Económica y Social (Association of Economic and Social Research)
- CIDA
Canadian International Development Agency
- IEP
Instituto de Estudios Peruanos (Institute of Peruvian Studies)
- ILO
International Labour Organisation
- INEI
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Informática (National Institute of Statistics)
- NGO
Non-governmental Organisation
- ODI
Overseas Development Institute
- OECD
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
- OTI
Oficina Internacional del Trabajo (International Labour Organisation)
- PNUD
Programa de las Naciones Unidas Para el Desarollo (UNDP)
- UCW
Understanding Children’s Work (Inter-agency Research Project on Child Labour – ILO, UNICEF and WB)
- UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
- UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
- UNICEF
United Nations Children’s Fund
- WB
World Bank
Appendix: Tables
Juntos impacts on education, disaggregated by age and gender
| Variable | All | Girls | Boys | ||||||
| Average for control group | Juntos effect | Numbers of observations | Average for control group | Juntos effect | Numbers of observations | Average for control group | Juntoseffect | Numbers ofobservations | |
| Registered at school | |||||||||
| Age 6 | 0.72 | 0.11** | 524 | 0.74 | −0.12*** | 250 | 0.66 | 0.05 | 265 |
| (0.05) | (0.07) | (0.07) | |||||||
| Age 7 | 0.83 | 0.10** | 530 | 0.72 | 0.24* | 279 | 0.84 | −0.08 | 246 |
| (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 8 | 0.88 | −0.01 | 558 | 0.92 | −0.03 | 285 | 0.78 | 0.06 | 273 |
| (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 9 | 0.89 | −0.05 | 498 | 0.86 | −0.01 | 237 | 0.88 | −0.01*** | 256 |
| (0.04) | (0.06) | (0.05) | |||||||
| Age 10 | 0.79 | −0.01 | 541 | 0.81 | 0.02 | 289 | 0.79 | −0.10 | 261 |
| (0.04) | (0.06) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 11 | 0.83 | 0.01 | 525 | 0.83 | 0.03 | 275 | 0.70 | 0.08 | 252 |
| (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.07) | |||||||
| Age 12 | 0.76 | 0.04 | 553 | 0.79 | 0.07 | 258 | 0.72 | 0.00 | 294 |
| (0.04) | (0.06) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 13 | 0.68 | 0.08 | 524 | 0.65 | 0.09 | 268 | 0.74 | 0.06 | 262 |
| (0.05) | (0.09) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 14 | 0.72 | −0.01 | 488 | 0.58 | 0.09 | 207 | 0.72 | −0.11 | 291 |
| (0.06) | (0.10) | (0.08) | |||||||
Juntos impacts on education, disaggregated by age and gender
| Variable | All | Girls | Boys | ||||||
| Average for control group | Juntos effect | Numbers of observations | Average for control group | Juntos effect | Numbers of observations | Average for control group | Juntos effect | Numbers of observations | |
| School attendance | |||||||||
| Age 6 | 0.70 | 0.12** | 527 | 0.69 | 0.01 | 252 | 0.65 | 0.12*** | 268 |
| (0.05) | (0.08) | (0.07) | |||||||
| Age 7 | 0.80 | 0.13* | 528 | 0.67 | 0.26* | 282 | 0.81 | −0.05 | 244 |
| (0.04) | (0.06) | (0.07) | |||||||
| Age 8 | 0.87 | −0.04 | 556 | −0.88 | −0.08 | 285 | 0.78 | 0.01 | 271 |
| (0.04) | (0.06) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 9 | 0.87 | −0.03 | 500 | 0.81 | 0.00 | 235 | 0.79 | −0.05 | 254 |
| (0.04) | (0.06) | (0.05) | |||||||
| Age 10 | 0.76 | −0.06 | 535 | 0.77 | 0.03 | 292 | 0.80 | −0.09 | 264 |
| (0.04) | (0.06) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 11 | 0.80 | 0.01 | 521 | 0.83 | 0.05 | 275 | 0.68 | −0.02 | 244 |
| (0.04) | (0.06) | (0.07) | |||||||
| Age 12 | 0.74 | −0.00 | 553 | 0.76 | 0.08 | 260 | 0.70 | 0.09 | 294 |
| (0.04) | (0.07) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 13 | 0.67 | 0.04 | 527 | 0.65 | −0.01 | 265 | 0.68 | 0.00 | 259 |
| (0.05) | (0.09) | (0.06) | |||||||
| Age 14 | 0.68 | −0.06 | 492 | 0.55 | 0.06 | 209 | 0.70 | −0.11 | 293 |
| (0.06) | (0.10) | (0.07) | |||||||
Juntos impact on labour markets
| Variable | Average for control group | Juntos effect | Numbers of observations | Average for control group | Juntos effect | Numbers of observations | Average for control group | Juntos effect | Numbers of observations |
| Adults: | All | Women | Men | ||||||
| Employed | 0.89 | −0.02** | 5,593 | 0.88 | −0.01 | 2,725 | 0.96 | −0.02* | 2,943 |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |||||||
| Number of hours | 35.90 | −0.27 | 5,576 | 32.34 | −1.13 | 2,759 | 39.63 | −0.18 | 2,943 |
| worked last week | (0.62) | (0.80) | (0.88) | ||||||
| Chidren: | All | Girls | Boys | ||||||
| Worked last week | 0.42 | 0.05** | 4,640 | 0.33 | 0.10* | 2,349 | 0.48 | 0.02 | 2,378 |
| (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |||||||
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- 1
Due to privacy reasons the respondents will not be named.
©2013 by De Gruyter
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Universal Basic Income and Recognition Theory – A Tangible Step towards an Ideal
- The Most Effective Means of Social Protection? An Evaluation of the Impact of Conditional Cash Transfers on Schooling and Child Labour in Peru
- The Basic Income Guarantee: A General Equilibrium Evaluation
- Book Reviews
- Citizen’s Income and Welfare Regimes in Latin America: From Cash Transfers to Rights, Rubén Lo Vuolo. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp. 286 (hardcover). ISBN: 978-0-230-33821-0
- Independence, Propertylessness, and Basic Income: A Theory of Freedom as the Power to Say No, Karl Widerquist. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp. 256, $100.00 (hardback). ISBN: 978-1-137-27472-4
- Public Policy for Women: The State, Income Security, and Labour Market Issues, Marjorie Griffin Cohen and Jane Pulkingham. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, 2009, pp. 417, $35.00 (Paperback). ISBN: 978-0-8020-9500-8
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Universal Basic Income and Recognition Theory – A Tangible Step towards an Ideal
- The Most Effective Means of Social Protection? An Evaluation of the Impact of Conditional Cash Transfers on Schooling and Child Labour in Peru
- The Basic Income Guarantee: A General Equilibrium Evaluation
- Book Reviews
- Citizen’s Income and Welfare Regimes in Latin America: From Cash Transfers to Rights, Rubén Lo Vuolo. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp. 286 (hardcover). ISBN: 978-0-230-33821-0
- Independence, Propertylessness, and Basic Income: A Theory of Freedom as the Power to Say No, Karl Widerquist. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp. 256, $100.00 (hardback). ISBN: 978-1-137-27472-4
- Public Policy for Women: The State, Income Security, and Labour Market Issues, Marjorie Griffin Cohen and Jane Pulkingham. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, 2009, pp. 417, $35.00 (Paperback). ISBN: 978-0-8020-9500-8