Unequal translanguaging: the affordances and limitations of a translanguaging space for alleviating students’ foreign language anxiety in language classrooms

4.1 Combining multimodal conversation analysis with interpretative phenomenological analysis

This study utilised a combination of Multimodal Conversation Analysis (MCA) and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to explore the complexities of translanguaging practices (Tai 2023). MCA adopts an emic perspective, focusing on how social order is collaboratively constructed through detailed examinations of social interactions. The analytical approach of MCA requires researchers to avoid pre-theorizing the significance and relevance of language use. The analysis emphasizes sequences rather than individual turns or utterances (Hutchby and Wooffitt 1998). The MCA analysis of the video data follows the principle of ‘unmotivated looking’ (Psathas 1995), grounding the research focus on the interactions recorded without referring to external factors unacknowledged by the participants, to develop an emic understanding of classroom interaction. Line-by-line analysis will examine how talk is sequentially organized on a turn-by-turn basis, relating each utterance to what preceded and followed it. MCA expands upon Conversation Analysis by integrating multimodal actions, such as gaze, gestures, and object manipulations, as essential components of social interaction alongside linguistic utterances. The methodological framework of MCA aligns with the concept of translanguaging as an analytical perspective because it enables researchers to observe not only the use of various named languages but also the role of space, objects, and other semiotic elements in interactions (Tai 2023). Detailed transcription is crucial for understanding how the CAL teachers’ translanguaging practices incorporate not only linguistic resources, but also other semiotic resources, such as visual images, gestures and body movements, to reduce students’ anxiety during classroom interactions. Data transcriptions were carried out using Jefferson’s (2004) and Mondada’s (2018) conventions, and screenshots from video recordings were included to illustrate multimodal interactions in the CAL classrooms.

As noted earlier, translanguaging practices are multifaceted, shaped by sociocultural factors such as personal history, identity, and beliefs (Li 2011). However, MCA focuses on analysing observable, publicly displayed actions, rather than participants’ internal thoughts or emotions. It seeks to identify the resources speakers use to construct social actions during interactions. Because MCA alone cannot fully account for the role of participants’ individual histories, beliefs, and other factors in shaping translanguaging spaces within classroom interactions (Tai 2023), the inclusion of IPA analysis through video-stimulated-recall-interviews provides a more comprehensive understanding of the teachers’ and students’ perspectives on the use of translanguaging practices during CAL lessons.

The findings from MCA were triangulated with data from video-stimulated-recall interviews, analysed using IPA. IPA helps to understand how the teachers and students interpret their use of translanguaging practices during specific moments of interaction. IPA employs a “double hermeneutic” process, wherein researchers strive to understand participants’ attempts to make sense of their own experiences (Smith et al. 2013). Such an analytical approach allows researchers to grasp how the teachers and students interpret their own translanguaging practices at specific moments during classroom interactions. The second hermeneutic (i.e., the researcher(s) interpreting the participants’ understanding of their experience) encourages researchers to connect theoretical concepts from outside the data to explain psychological phenomena, thereby adopting an etic approach to enhance the emic analysis of the participants’ lived experiences. Initially, a microanalysis of the classroom interaction was performed, which was then triangulated with an IPA analysis of the video-stimulated-recall interview data. This approach ensures the analytical rigour of MCA is maintained without compromising its integrity. To strengthen interpretative validity, an iterative coding process with constant comparison was employed. This method required the researcher to continuously align their interpretations with the actual statements made by the participating teachers during the interviews. To make the IPA analysis more accessible for readers, a three-column table was created to help them understand how the researcher interpreted the CAL teachers’ efforts to comprehend their own teaching practices. The first column, from left to right, included excerpts from the video-stimulated-recall interviews. The second column presented the teachers’ viewpoints on their teaching methods at specific moments during the classroom interaction. The final column documented the researcher’s interpretations of the teachers’ perspectives, following IPA’s two-step interpretation process, known as double hermeneutic. This double hermeneutic perspective is evident through interpretative statements like “it can be argued,” “may be understood as,” “may explain why,” and similar phrases.

4.2 Participating schools

The two secondary schools examined primarily serve South Asian students, who make up roughly 80 % of the student population. These schools were chosen for the research due to their strong reputation for delivering high-quality CAL education to EM students. I obtained permission from the school principals to conduct ethnographic data collection, which may offer new insights into CAL classroom dynamics. Both principals are strong supporters of multilingual education and frequently speak at public seminars. The schools also have a small number of local HK students enrolled. Apart from Chinese Language classes that were taught in Cantonese, all subjects were taught in English as the medium-of-instruction (EMI). Additionally, the schools offered extra resources such as tutoring and extracurricular activities to enhance the overall learning experience and promote both academic and personal growth.

4.3 Participating teachers

In this study, two teachers, referred to as Teacher A (TA) and Teacher B (TB), were selected as participants using convenience sampling. This approach was adopted to ensure accessibility to teachers who were both interested in the research and willing to explore the concept of translanguaging. Consequently, when the study commenced, both teachers demonstrated enthusiasm and readiness to participate.

TA is a male teacher with 18 years of experience teaching Chinese to EM students and currently serves as the Head of the Chinese department at School A. A native Cantonese speaker, TA is fluent in Mandarin/Putonghua but considers his English proficiency to be below average. He attended a Chinese-medium-instruction school for his secondary education and later pursued a degree in Chinese Language and Literature, with a minor in Chinese History, at a university in Hong Kong. He also earned a postgraduate diploma in education from a renowned EMI university in Hong Kong. However, TA has no specific training in teaching CAL to EM students using L2 English or other named languages.

TB, a female teacher with 3 years of experience teaching Chinese to ethnic minority students, serves as the Head of the Chinese department and the Head of Special Educational Needs at School B. A native Cantonese speaker fluent in Mandarin, TB attended a Chinese-medium-instruction secondary school in Hong Kong. She majored in teaching Chinese as an international language at a university in Mainland China, where her undergraduate studies included training in using L2 English to support the teaching of Chinese to L2 speakers.

4.4 Participating students

The first author observed a year 7 CAL class at School A and a year 11 CAL class at School B for more than a semester. The year 7 CAL class comprised 31 students of diverse nationalities, including 10 Pakistani, 8 Nepalese, 6 Indian, 1 Nigerian, 1 Jamaican, 1 Portuguese, 1 Korean, and 3 Chinese students. All students were 13 years old and had received at least six years of English-medium primary education. Many of the EM students in the class either grew up in HK or immigrated at a young age and had some proficiency in Cantonese. Five students were born in India, one in Korea, one in Jamaica, and one in Nepal, while the remaining 23 students were born in HK.

Alternatively, the year 11 CAL class at School B consisted of 16 students of various nationalities, including 8 Pakistani, 1 Nepalese, 2 Indian, 1 Chinese, 1 Indonesian, and 3 Filipino students. The students’ ages ranged from 16 to 18. Most of the students (13 in total) had completed at least six years of primary education with EMI and had lived in HK for 10–17 years. In contrast, a smaller group of students (3 in total) had lived in HK for only 2–7 years and did not receive their primary education there.

To explore the impact of anxiety on CAL learning, it was essential to include students with different levels of anxiety. A questionnaire, derived from the Short-Form Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (S-FLCAS) (Botes et al. 2022), was utilized to measure the anxiety levels that L2 students experienced during classroom interactions with their teachers. This eight-item questionnaire, rated on a 5-point Likert scale, provided a comprehensive analysis while reducing participant fatigue (Dörnyei 2007). Although using quantitative measures to assess students’ FLA has its limitations (see Section 2), the questionnaire aimed to provide researchers with preliminary insights into students’ FLA levels and identify students for in-depth semi-structured interviews and video-stimulated recall interviews. It should be noted that this questionnaire is not the sole method for evaluating students’ FLA.

The questionnaire was administered to Year 7 students at School A and Year 11 students at School B at three intervals (after 2, 4, and 6 months) to monitor changes in students’ FLA over time. Based on their S-FLCAS scores, students were categorized into high, moderate, and low anxiety levels, with the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles serving as cut-off points for classification. In the Year 7 class (Table 1), initial results indicated 25 % high anxiety, 50 % moderate, and 25 % low anxiety. By the second interval, these figures shifted to 12.5 % high anxiety, 75 % moderate, and 12.5 % low anxiety, and by the final interval to 22.2 % high anxiety, 55.6 % moderate, and 22.2 % low anxiety. In comparison, the Year 11 class (Table 2) initially showed 27 % high anxiety, 60 % moderate, and 20 % low anxiety, changing to 27 % high anxiety, 47 % moderate, and 27 % low anxiety by the second interval, and 14 % high anxiety, 57 % moderate, and 29 % low anxiety by the final interval. Students who consistently exhibited high, moderate, and low levels of CAL classroom anxiety at all three intervals were invited to participate in video-stimulated recall interviews with the researcher.

4.5 Data collection

The study adhered to the guidelines set by The University of Hong Kong Research Ethics Committee. Consent forms were given to participants in both Chinese and English. The first and second authors personally briefed school principals, teachers, and students about the project, covering its goals, the researchers’ duties, and the methods for gathering and storing data. Students who chose not to participate were seated in locations where the video camera would not record their faces.

Prior to the commencement of classroom interaction data collection, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the participating teachers. The purpose of these interviews was to obtain information about the teachers’ professional background, language skills, perspectives on effective CAL teaching strategies, and attitudes toward the use of multiple languages in online tutorials. Additionally, a one-hour professional development session was individually conducted with the teachers. During this session, the researcher introduced the concept of translanguaging (Li 2018) to the teachers. Drawing on previous empirical studies, the teachers were informed about how translanguaging could be applied in multilingual classroom interactions, as supported by research findings (Tai 2024). The aim of introducing these concepts to the participating teachers was to promote the use of available multilingual and multimodal resources to support L2 and content learning, rather than adhering to the monolingual language policy in CAL classrooms that limits the use of home languages for scaffolding CAL learning. Real-life classroom video examples were provided to demonstrate how translanguaging can be integrated into classroom interactions and how teachers can develop their translanguaging skills to create learning opportunities in CAL classroom settings. In the latter part of the professional development session, the researcher and the teachers explored potential ways to incorporate translanguaging practices into classroom teaching to enhance student learning. Examples of translanguaging practices in a highly diverse multilingual classroom were shown to the teacher, including the use of labels, signs, and posters in multiple languages, providing selective L1 translations, grouping students with the same L1, and encouraging language comparisons when explaining new vocabulary items. It was emphasized to the participating teachers that the session’s objective was to offer pedagogical suggestions, and it was their responsibility to adapt their teaching methods to meet the students’ needs and create an appropriate learning environment. At the conclusion of the session, both participating teachers informed the researcher that the explanation of translanguaging had helped them gain a clearer understanding of how they could potentially implement translanguaging practices in their CAL classrooms. They also recognized how they could use interaction as a tool to facilitate students’ CAL learning and reduce students’ anxiety.

Throughout a semester, data on classroom interactions were gathered from the participating teachers. I observed and recorded a total of fifteen 1-h CAL lessons taught by TA and ten 1-h CAL lessons taught by TB. To gain deeper insights into their teaching practices, a 1-h video-stimulated-recall interview was conducted with the teachers after the completion of the lesson observations. The video-stimulated-recall-interview was conducted in Cantonese with the participating teachers. Prior to the interview, video clips highlighting significant aspects of the teachers’ translanguaging practices were selected as stimuli. These clips depicted common examples of translanguaging practices in CAL teaching and were combined to provide a comprehensive overview. The teachers were asked to watch the selected video clips and reflect on their teaching practices during specific moments in the CAL instruction. This approach aimed to illuminate how institutional and socio-cultural factors influence the pedagogical practices of CAL teachers (Tai 2023).

A 1-h video-stimulated-recall focus group interview was conducted with selected students to gain their perspectives on the effectiveness of their teachers’ translanguaging practices in reducing anxiety related to CAL learning (Smith et al. 2013; Tai 2023). The interview was conducted in English, as it was the preferred language of the students. Based on the questionnaire results, four students from each anxiety level (high, moderate, and low) were invited by me to participate in the focus group interview. In the Year 7 class at School A, Student 1, a Hong Kong-born student of Nepalese descent, exhibited moderate anxiety levels and primarily spoke Nepali and English at home. Student 3 (S3), of mixed Chinese and Nigerian heritage, initially attended a mainstream primary school where Chinese was the medium of instruction for all subjects except English. However, facing difficulties with the local Chinese language curriculum, he transferred to a primary school specifically designed for ethnic minority (EM) students. Student 3 was found to have high anxiety levels based on the S-FLCAS scores. Conversely, Student 4 (S4), a Hong Kong-born student of Pakistani descent, showed low anxiety levels and primarily spoke Hindko and Urdu at home. In the Year 11 class at School B, Student 5 (S5), a Mainland China-born student of Filipino descent, displayed moderate anxiety levels and mainly spoke English and Tagalog at home. I asked the students to view the selected video clips (the same ones shown to the CAL teachers) and openly discuss their experiences regarding the impact of their teacher’s translanguaging practices on their CAL learning.

5.1 Extract 1: incorporating students’ lived experiences into the classroom space through mobilising diverse multilingual and multimodal resources

Prior to the extract, TA encouraged students to form Chinese sentences about their favourite sports. Subsequently, students were prompted to write their sentences on the whiteboard for everyone to see. In this extract, the teacher first reads aloud Student 8’s sentence, “我參加了足球隊 (I joined a football team)” (lines 63–68). He then initiates a side-sequence (lines 70–103) that allows him and his students to engage in a conversation about the upcoming inter-house football match at school.

In lines 63–65, TA verifies the authorship of the sentence on the whiteboard (line 63) and subsequently leads the entire class to recite the sentence written by Student 8 (S8) aloud (lines 65 and 67). Following the collective reading of the sentence (line 68), TA inquires about the students who have joined the football team, simultaneously raising his left hand in the air (line 70, Figure #3). Students 4 (S4), S8, and 11 respond by raising their hands (line 71, Figure #4). S4 quietly mentions in Cantonese about an upcoming football match the following day (line 72). TA echoes S4’s statement in a questioning tone (line 74). After a brief pause, S8 spontaneously takes an uninvited turn (line 76), saying “喂°快啲練°” ((hey, get practising)). This statement reflects his dedication to the game and his effort to remind his peers to practice football with him. In line 78, T responds with “好啦” (alright) in a descending tone. TA then offers encouragement to S4 by repeating “加油” (all the best) in line 80. As he says this, he shakes S4’s hand (Figure #5) to show his support and boost S4’s morale for the game.

In line 83, Student 9 (S9) also raises his hand, signalling that he too is a member of the football team. This prompts a question from TA, who asks if S9 is also part of the team (Figure #6). During the subsequent 0.8-s pause (line 84), S9 doesn’t respond to TA’s inquiry. Instead, TA proactively approaches Student 11 (S11) to shake his hand, as he is another member of the football team. In line 85, TA repeatedly says “加油” (all the best) in a loud voice. TA’s verbal encouragement, coupled with the non-verbal action of shaking students’ hands (Figure #8), serves to intensify his support for the impending football match. It is also noted that TA switches to English and exclaims “score” in a rising tone while walking towards S8 and shaking hands with him (line 90, Figure #8), which reflects his enthusiasm and excitement about the upcoming game. It also underscores TA’s use of a common English sports term, potentially making his encouragement more relatable to the students.

In lines 92, 94, and 96, TA reverts to Cantonese to ask S8 repeatedly about his position in the football match. After a brief pause, S8 responds with “°中鋒°” (centre forward) in a subdued tone (line 98). TA first acknowledges S8’s answer by echoing it and then fervently encourages S8 to score more goals, exclaiming, “喂加油加油加油入多啲波 (hey, go, go, go, score more goals)” with increased volume. He further reinforces this encouragement by shaking S8’s hands once more (line 102).

In this extract, TA’s use of translanguaging is primarily demonstrated through his predominant use of Cantonese, supplemented by occasional L2 English for sports terminology. Additionally, TA’s use of physical gestures, such as handshaking, can be understood as part of a broader multimodal approach to communication (Li 2018). These gestures demonstrate his dedication to supporting and motivating students in class. It can be argued that this enthusiastic approach, combined with his personal touch, fosters a positive and enthusiastic learning environment. During the video-stimulated-recall-interview with TA, he believes that his expressive displays of curiosity play a role in contributing to reducing students’ anxiety in the CAL language classroom, as it creates an inclusive atmosphere where they can feel a sense of comfort to exchange different ideas (Table 3):

In the interview, TA demonstrates a teaching approach designed to minimize students’ anxiety associated with learning CAL. He intentionally fosters a supportive and relaxed classroom environment, encouraging students to confidently express themselves and share their personal experiences. Furthermore, he uses physical interactions, such as shaking hands with students, to build stronger, more personal relationships, effectively reducing student anxiety. TA firmly believes that this teaching strategy not only disrupts the monotony of traditional learning methods – where the teacher predominantly controls classroom discourse and provides limited opportunities for student interaction – but also encourages students to engage more actively in conversations in Cantonese. This is evident when he states, “I know that many of them play football, so I naturally started this topic, hoping they could talk more. They really did talk more, which made me very happy” (line 2). From this, it can be inferred that TA’s pedagogical approach aims to enhance student participation in classroom discourse. This strategy, in turn, creates a translanguaging space that encourages students to practice speaking in Cantonese. By doing so, TA successfully facilitates the students’ acquisition of CAL in a more engaging and less stressful manner.

Moreover, TA exhibits a keen awareness of the balance between authority and approachability. Acknowledging his authoritative role, he nevertheless emphasizes his aspiration for open communication with his students. TA strives to be seen as a supportive friend rather than a stern authority figure. His primary objective is to cultivate an environment where students do not feel intimidated to share their thoughts, an aim he believes can be compromised if students harbour excessive fear of overstepping boundaries. TA’s teaching approach is deeply influenced by his sociable personality, which gravitates towards fostering a sense of camaraderie, as highlighted in line 4. He is cognizant of his students’ developmental stage, particularly the potential self-image issues that may surface in the first year of secondary school. TA comprehends that those students at this stage might become more self-conscious and may harbour fears of embarrassment. Consequently, he aspires to create a classroom atmosphere that mitigates these anxieties, encouraging students to make mistakes and learn from them in a supportive, non-judgmental environment. As such, TA’s perspective embodies an empathetic and student-centred approach, centred on alleviating student anxiety, promoting active participation, and cultivating a positive translanguaging space conducive to CAL learning.

From the student interview (Table 4), it is evident that the students appreciate and value their teacher’s approach towards creating a supportive and inclusive learning environment. In response to the researcher’s question about the rationale behind shaking hands with the football team members (line 2), S3 explains that this gesture was in recognition of their upcoming competition. This shows that the teacher’s actions are interpreted by students as a form of support and encouragement. The students see the handshaking as a sign of respect and acknowledgement of their achievements (lines 3, 8, 9). Particularly, S1 draws parallels between this gesture and those typically seen in professional settings when someone achieves something notable (line 7). This suggests that the students perceive this action as affirming and validating, contributing to their sense of self-worth and accomplishment.

When asked about the impact of TA’s adoption of an empathetic and student-centred approach on their learning, the students respond positively (line 5). They believe it aids their learning experience and reduces their anxiety in class. S4 adds that the teacher’s approach makes them feel confident (line 14), further indicating the positive impact of the teacher’s inclusive and respectful approach. The students also agree that incorporating real-life examples into class discussions and engaging the whole class in these discussions increases their motivation to participate and learn the language (lines 11, 12, 13). They feel that this teaching style allows them to gain more knowledge and understanding of the Chinese language.

Therefore, it can be argued that TA’s translanguaging practices, characterized by personal engagement through the use of Cantonese and English technical term, physical gestures, and the conscious creation of a relaxed and inclusive learning space, play a significant role in reducing students’ anxiety associated with learning CAL. This is further corroborated by the students’ positive responses during the interview. TA’s pedagogical approach not only makes learning more engaging and less stressful but also creates a positive translanguaging space for students to encourage students to express their thoughts in Cantonese, thereby enhancing their L2 Chinese speaking proficiency.

5.2 Extract 2: mitigating students’ anxiety during individual presentation through using translative method

The translative method is a widely recognized pedagogical approach in Second Language Acquisition, designed to strategically integrate translation and multilingual practices to enhance L2 learning, especially for students in linguistically diverse or anxiety-provoking classroom environments. Cook (2010) revitalized the use of translation within Second Language Acquisition by incorporating it into language teaching, thereby advancing its theoretical and empirical support as a valuable pedagogical tool and skill in language classrooms. Consequently, the communicative approach in language teaching now views translation as a social activity, utilized in transcultural communication to aid L2 instruction (Zuo and Walsh 2023).

Prior to the extract, to the extract, TB allotted 10 min for students to prepare an individual presentation to support the statement: “China will become a cashless society.” Students were instructed to contemplate the aspects of life in China that are transitioning towards cashlessness and the advantages this shift brings to individuals. Student 5 (S5) was nominated by TB to present individually in front of the class. S5’s anxiety and shyness were apparent during his presentation, as evidenced by his reluctance to engage with the audience and his decision to direct his attention solely towards TB. Despite being asked by TB to face his peers, S5 refused and insisted on facing TB. In this extract, S5 struggles to provide a coherent speech on the given topic, and TB offers support to S5 throughout the process.

In lines 59 and 61, TB offers S5 advice by inviting him to come up with the first key point that demonstrates China as a cashless society. It is noticeable that TB uses Cantonese for the explanation but switches to English to utter the noun “point” (line 59) to emphasize the first argument S5 needs to construct. In line 63, S5 utters “無現金啊 (cashless),” simply repeating TB’s prior words in line 61, revealing his thinking process. TB then steps in and rephrases her question, “由邊一度可以睇到啊? (where can one see this from?)” (line 64). However, S5 responds with “由:::::: (from)” (line 66), elongating the sound and highlighting his nervousness and uncertainty. This is further evident in line 68 as S5 switches back to English, stating, “I really don’t know.” To offer some confidence, TB points out that S5 mentioned a point earlier, “你頭先咪講咯 (you just mentioned that earlier)” (line 69). This leads to an uptake from S5, noted in his elongated change-of-state token “ah::::” in line 71. Subsequently, S5 mentions there is no need to bring a wallet (lines 73, 75), which TB positively acknowledges by echoing S5’s response in line 77. In line 81, S5 continues in Cantonese to point out that there is no need to bring so much cash, and TB again echoes S5’s response, signalling her acknowledgement (lines 83, 85). In lines 88, 90, and 92, S5 struggles to explain why there is no need to bring cash, evident in his elongated sounds on markers of disfluency “umm::::” (lines 90 and 92) and repeating the same Chinese characters “因爲” twice (lines 88 and 92). S5 initiates the turn in line 94, attempting to speak but hesitates, indicated by “umm:::”. There is a significant pause (line 95), indicating S5 is thinking or struggling to find the right word. Subsequently, S5 softly says “modern” in English in line 96, possibly indicating uncertainty. In line 98, TB’s hesitation marker “hmm?” signals a need for clarification. S5 repeats “modern” in English in line 100, prompting TB to provide the equivalent Chinese translations, such as “而家 (now)” (line 102) and “現今” (modern) (line 104). TB also provides an additional Chinese vocabulary, “社會” (society) (line 107), inviting S5 to try and use the prompts in his speech. Despite TB’s efforts, S5 repeatedly insists on “modern” in English, expressing confusion with “no modern” (line 109), “modern” (line 113), and “no↓ modern↓” (line 117). TB’s attempt to contextualize “modern” with “現今社會” (modern society) (line 119) and turning to the class suggests a strategy to involve other students or further clarify the concept. S5 rejects TB’s translation, insisting that “現今社會” (modern society) is not the correct Chinese translation he seeks. S5’s phrase “I wanna say modern” (line 121) indicates a strong belief in the incorrectness of the provided translation. It could be argued that S5 is looking for the Chinese translation of 新式 (modern) or 現代 (modern), emphasizing the most recent ideas and methods.

TB’s refusal to provide a direct answer, as explained in Cantonese (“我唔可以講俾你聽” I cannot tell you), underscores a pedagogical approach designed to encourage S5 to think independently (line 123). This approach involves ‘output-promoting’ scaffolding, which aims to motivate S5 to produce responses in Chinese. Despite TB’s efforts to explain the importance of self-reliance in exam situations, S5’s continued insistence and expressions of confusion in English (“then I don’t understand”) indicate a struggle to reconcile his understanding with the provided translations. TB continues to use Cantonese in lines 129 and 131 to reiterate that direct assistance is not allowed in exams, serving as a teaching moment that emphasizes the need for independent problem-solving. This leads to an acknowledgement from S5 as he utters “I know” in English in line 130, indicating his understanding that he needs to be independent when doing individual presentations.

In this extract, it is evident that TB senses S5’s unease and attempts to alleviate his nervousness by offering verbal support in Cantonese and guiding him patiently through each phase of the presentation (e.g., lines 61 and 64). TB’s empathetic approach is reflected in her willingness to rephrase questions and provide Chinese translations for S5, which aim to build S5’s confidence and comprehension. Moreover, TB allows S5 to use L2 English to initiate questions, creating a translanguaging space that enables S5 to clarify any misunderstandings. During the video-stimulated-recall-interview with TB, TB explains her pedagogical goal of creating a translanguaging space for students to overcome their fears and excel in learning CAL (Table 5):

In the interview, the researcher acknowledges the teacher’s awareness of S5’s nervousness and her strategic response to it (line 3). Although TB initially wanted S5 to face his peers to boost his confidence, she noticed that S5 felt more comfortable facing her (line 4). Therefore, she decided to stand in front of him during the presentation, believing that this strategy could create a comfort zone for S5 and help alleviate his nervousness.

Additionally, it is evident from the MCA analysis that TB allows S5 to use L2 English to initiate questions and often uses Cantonese to translate S5’s L2 English utterances. In the interview, TB highlights that while the students’ English language proficiency is stronger than their Chinese, the use of English can still assist them in learning Chinese (line 4). This demonstrates TB’s understanding and acceptance of students’ multilingual context and her willingness to allow students to use L2 English to initiate questions in class, potentially enhancing their CAL learning experience. Therefore, it can be suggested that TB’s creation of a translanguaging space to alleviate students’ anxiety during individual presentations is driven by her pedagogical belief in mobilizing available linguistic resources familiar to her students. This approach serves as a scaffolding strategy to support EM students in their learning of Chinese. Such a pedagogical approach not only reduces anxiety, but also potentially enhances the overall learning experience by making the learning process more relatable to students’ linguistic backgrounds. In the video-stimulated-recall-interview conducted with selected students, S5 elaborates on the impact of TB’s pedagogical approach on mitigating his anxiety during that moment of interaction (Table 6):

Based on the S-FLCAS scores, S5 was identified as experiencing a moderate level of anxiety. However, the MCA analysis reveals that S5’s anxiety was palpable during the individual presentation. TB attempted to mitigate his nervousness by providing verbal support and patiently guiding him with prompts and directed questions. The researcher is intrigued to explore whether TB’s efforts to create a safe translanguaging space helped S5 manage his anxiety during the presentation.

In the interview, S5 conveyed feelings of anxiety and a lack of preparedness when unexpectedly asked to present (line 2). Although he recognized TB’s effort to assist by asking follow-up questions, he felt it heightened his anxiety due to his unpreparedness. This highlights the complex interaction between FLA and task demands, as well as other factors like preparedness. Despite this initial anxiety, S5 acknowledged that he managed to learn from the experience and respond to some questions. This learning process is evident in the MCA analysis, where, with TB’s help, S5 attempted to articulate his argument. This change underscores the effectiveness of TB’s supportive mentorship in mitigating S5’s presentation-related anxiety. The nuances of FLA demonstrate that while support can alleviate anxiety, unexpected challenges can heighten it, especially when preparedness is lacking. Nevertheless, TB’s creation of a translanguaging space, where S5 could freely utilize his full linguistic resources without constraints, played a supportive role for S5. This inclusive environment provided a comfort zone for S5, helping to alleviate his anxiety associated with the use of the Chinese language during the individual presentation. By fostering a space where S5 could engage with the task using all available linguistic tools, TB facilitated a process that allowed S5 to gradually manage his anxiety and gain confidence.