Enhancing second language motivation and facilitating vocabulary acquisition in an EFL classroom through translanguaging practices

2.1 Translanguaging

Li (2018) developed the Welsh-coined concept of translanguaging further, applying it to the knowledge construction process, incorporating multilingual and multimodal resources into its scope. Translanguaging is not merely about language switching; it advocates for the integrated use of multiple languages and diverse meaning-making resources in a dynamic educational framework (Li 2022). Unlike traditional code-switching, which treats languages as separate systems, translanguaging considers them as part of a unified linguistic repertoire (Li 2018). Regarding translanguaging practices, multilingual resources include registers, styles, dialects, and various language variations, while multimodal resources encompass visual images, facial expressions, body movements, gestures, and the interplay between speech and writing. Li (2011) also developed the concept of translanguaging space, referring to an interactional space created by and for translanguaging practices.

The concept of translanguaging has evolved across three dimensions: as a pedagogical approach, a theory of language, and an analytical perspective. As a pedagogical approach, translanguaging is strategic and intentional, designed to promote critical thinking, language acquisition, appreciation of linguistic diversity, and metalinguistic awareness (Cenoz and Gorter 2020; García and Li 2014). It involves the deliberate use of one language to reinforce another, enhancing comprehension and proficiency in both languages. The aim is to use the stronger language to support the development of the weaker one, fostering balanced bilingual growth. In the EFL context, studies have demonstrated that translanguaging pedagogy enhances English language learning by activating learners’ translanguaging resources to improve morphological awareness (Teng and Fang 2024), boost writing performance (Sun and Zhang 2022), enhance communicative competence (Nkhi and Shange 2024), and foster critical thinking in hybrid course designs (Yüzlü and Dikilitaş 2022). In the Turkish EFL context, Yüzlü and Dikilitaş (2021) further found that translanguaging significantly enhanced learning outcomes and provided mental, participatory, and emotional benefits compared to traditional methods.

As an analytical tool, it highlights multilingual individuals’ innovative practices within social interactions, allowing researchers to explore how people creatively use diverse social and linguistic resources to transcend conventional language boundaries and sociocultural norms (Tai 2023a). Researchers have employed translanguaging as an analytical perspective to examine how teachers use multilingual and multimodal resources to scaffold content and language learning (e.g., Tai 2023b, 2024a, 2024b, 2024d; Tai and Lee 2024; Tai and Zuo 2024). For example, Tai and Khabbazbashi (2019) identified the use of talk plus gesture format and embodied enactments as explanations in vocabulary teaching to beginner-level adults. Ho and Tai (2021) explored how online teachers strategically orchestrated multimodal resources to explain English vocabulary. Further research has investigated L2 learners’ ability to transcend linguistic limits and bridge gaps between language and other communicative systems for effective meaning-making. For instance, in online L2 learning, students often connected prior knowledge with current classroom experiences, utilizing various multilingual and multimodal resources to understand Chinese characters (Ho and Li 2019). Tai (2024c) examined how students used translanguaging resources to display their thinking processes and grasp vocabulary concepts, offering new approaches for teachers to assess L2 knowledge. In addition, Tai and Brandt (2018) examined how a teacher’s use of embodied enactments in an ESOL classroom created multimodal interactions that connected classroom learning with real-world language use, enhancing opportunities for L2 learning.

Nevertheless, more research is needed to investigate whether translanguaging enhances L2 motivation and to identify additional features of translanguaging practices in senior high school EFL vocabulary instruction. Adopting translanguaging as both a pedagogical approach and an analytical perspective is also essential for a deeper understanding of curriculum design and how multilingual and multimodal resources are utilized by teachers and students in meaning-making and knowledge construction processes.

2.2 Second Language Motivational Self System (L2MSS)

In recent years, an increasing number of studies have focused on motivation as a predictor of success and achievement in SLA. This emphasis has led to the development of the L2MSS (Dörnyei 2005, 2009), which is viewed as a socio-dynamic phenomenon that highlights the interplay of various contextual variables. The L2MSS is grounded in Markus and Nurius’s (1986) theory of possible selves, Higgins’s (1987) self-discrepancy theory, and Gardner’s (2010) socio-educational model, providing a nuanced understanding of L2 motivation. Particularly, L2MSS has been instrumental in conceptualizing the relationship between L2 motivation and optimized learning outcomes.

The L2MSS comprises three dimensions, each reflecting different aspects of L2 education. The first dimension is Ideal L2 Self, which represents the ideal individual that L2 learners aspire to become (Dörnyei and Chan 2013). This dimension is guided by personal ambitions and aspirations rather than sociocultural standards. The second dimension is Ought-to L2 Self, reflecting learners’ awareness of the qualities they should possess to meet external expectations and avoid negative outcomes (Papi et al. 2019). This dimension underscores the influence of societal and community pressures on learners, prompting them to align their goals with the perceived benefits of SLA. L2 Learning Experience is the third dimension, encompassing motivational factors within the learning environment (Liu and Thompson 2018), such as peer and teacher influence, pedagogical methods, and the learner’s relationship with their L2 teacher. Unlike the Ideal and Ought-to L2 Selves, which are related to internal imagery, the L2 Learning Experience is more connected to the external environment, reflecting the learner’s immediate context. Dörnyei (2019) emphasized the importance of the L2 Learning Experience, arguing that initial motivation may not emerge until learners actively engage in language learning.

Recent meta-analyses by Al-Hoorie (2018) and Yousefi and Mahmoodi (2022) confirmed the significant role of L2MSS’s three dimensions in influencing motivated learning behavior and language learning outcomes. Various interventions, such as visual interaction (Sato and Lara 2019), and vision enhancement (Safdari 2021), have been employed to enhance students’ L2MSS in EFL contexts. Previous studies also highlighted that students’ Ideal L2 Self played a crucial role in shaping positive attitudes toward translanguaging (Yamagami 2023), and language choice (Lee and Lo 2017; Li and Tai 2024) in classrooms. Although extensive research has underscored the significance of L2MSS in shaping motivated learning behavior and outcomes in language learning (Moskovsky et al. 2016; Saito et al. 2018), there still remains a gap in studies specifically exploring the impact of translanguaging practices on the L2MSS of senior high school EFL learners.

4.1 Participating school, teacher, and students

This study was conducted in a top senior high school in Jiangsu Province, known for its strong support for educational research. The English subject leader and a motivated teacher with nearly ten years of EFL experience participated. The teacher, fluent in English and interested in translanguaging, taught an 11th-grade class of native Chinese speakers with high English proficiency. Eight 45-min sessions of vocabulary classroom were observed and video-recorded. Informed consent was obtained from the school principal, the teacher, and students’ parents, ensuring voluntary participation and anonymity, with the option to withdraw at any time.

In the context of this study, it is important to acknowledge that there may be a disconnect between the instructional approach through translanguaging practices and the traditional assessment formats used in China, such as the Gaokao. The Gaokao remains a high-stakes, standardized exam that emphasizes conventional English testing formats, often prioritizing rote memorization and fixed-language structures over flexible, meaning-focused language use. Although translanguaging may foster deeper understanding and enhance students’ motivation for English language learning, making it a potentially welcome approach, some students may still feel uncertain about its alignment with their exam preparation needs due to the rigid language expectations in traditional assessments.

4.2 Data collection

Representative classroom extracts were selected through systematic classroom observations to illustrate the teacher’s instructional design and pedagogical approach. Post-video-stimulated-recall interviews were conducted to explore the teacher’s perceptions of translanguaging practices within these extracts. Additionally, students’ shift and enhancement of L2 motivation were investigated through focus group, which also revealed their attitudes toward translanguaging practices.

4.3 Combining multimodal conversation analysis (MCA) with interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)

This study uses MCA to examine how a teacher using translanguaging practices enhanced students’ L2 motivation and vocabulary learning through classroom interactions. MCA focuses on how social order is created in interactions, using an emic approach to analyze natural language use without assumptions (Brouwer and Wagner 2004; Markee and Kasper 2004). This method is valuable in educational settings as it reveals how teachers and students use various communication modes, along with the influence of the physical environment, technological tools, and other contextual factors in shaping interactions. Screenshots from video recordings were used to illustrate these multimodal interactions with Tai’s (2023b) transcription conventions adapted from Jefferson (2004) and Mondada (2018) (see Appendix A).

Additionally, IPA was used to analyze video-stimulated-recall-interview data, exploring the teacher’s perceptions of her translanguaging practices in specific classroom interactions. IPA allows researchers to adopt an insider’s perspective (Conrad 1987), focusing on teachers’ individual experiences and how they interpret their world (Smith et al. 2013). The IPA analysis in this study followed Smith et al.’s (2013) stages, progressing from description to interpretation. Two researchers iteratively coded the data to ensure interrater reliability and compared interpretations with the teacher’s actual statements from the interviews. Besides, two Chinese-English bilingual experts translated the Mandarin interviews into English, ensuring accuracy and faithfulness to the intended meaning.

4.4 Focus group

Forty students were categorized into four levels based on their provincial examination scores, with two students randomly selected from each level for a focus group, totaling eight participants (see Appendix B). The focus group aimed to explore students’ perceptions of the teacher’s translanguaging practices in enhancing their L2 motivation and vocabulary learning. All transcriptions were processed in NVivo to facilitate coding. Two researchers independently transcribed the data to ensure interrater reliability, analyzing it using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis, with attention to internal consistency and external divergence of themes. Discrepancies in sub-themes and themes were resolved through consensus. Two Chinese-English bilingual speakers employed forward and backward translation for the final themes and supporting quotes to ensure the accuracy. Table 1 outlines the characteristics of the participants.

5.1 Representative classroom extracts and the interview with the teacher

Following Ten Have (1990), representative excerpts were selected to illustrate the recurring interactional phenomena or highlight variations in deviant cases.

5.1.1 Extract 1: creating a real-life scenario and repeating students’ L1

Before the extract, the teacher (T) directed students to read a paragraph and instructed them to circle the word drill. T then presented an example sentence and initiated a question (line 01), but students remained silent. T rephrased the question in line 03 to prompt engagement, further clarifying that drill was being used as a verb. However, students continued to stay silent, which led T to ask the question again in line 05. Several students then responded with the meaning of drill in their L1 (i.e. Mandarin), indicating some initial conceptual understanding of the vocabulary. To affirm their response, T repeated and emphasized it in Mandarin as well (line 09), using students’ L1 to validate students’ interpretation and build their confidence. This positive reinforcement through L1 reduced students’ apprehension, allowing them to engage more comfortably. Simultaneously, in line 09, T used gestures to illustrate the verb form of drill (Figure #1), making the meaning visually accessible. From lines 11–15, T strategically transitioned to explaining drill in English, continuing the gestures and drawing on the PPT slide for added clarity.

As students showed signs of understanding, T then guided them to imagine a real-life scenario of installing an air conditioner (Figures #2 and #3). T asked what they should do first (lines 17–21) and illustrated this with repeated motions, swinging her right hand up and down (Figure #4). When students remained silent, T rephrased the question (lines 23–25), lifting both hands in the air and drawing a circle (Figure #5) to further make the real-life scenario more vivid. This adjustment in gesture by switching to a more exaggerated body movement drew students’ attention and aroused students’ motivation to give responses.

Finally, in line 29, the students and T articulated the sentence “drill a hole” together, confirming that students had grasped drill as an action verb. T demonstrated this by visually acting out the first step in the air conditioner installation process (Figure #6), reinforcing the concept of drill.

In this extract, T’s translanguaging practices include multilingual and multimodal practices, and paralinguistic features to facilitate students’ conceptual understanding of drill as a verb. Multilingually, T first reinforces comprehension in students’ L1, validating their initial understanding before strategically transitioning to using English to explain, thereby scaffolding vocabulary acquisition across languages. Multimodally, the teacher uses gestures, body movements and visual aids on the PPT, as well as a real-life scenario (installing an air conditioner) to contextualize the concept, making drill more tangible. Additionally, paralinguistic features, such as varied intonation, emphasis, and repetition, highlight key points and maintain engagement. These translanguaging practices provide layered support, enhancing students’ comprehension and retention in a contextually relevant and inclusive way.

The interview data (see Table 2) indicates that the teacher deliberately employed various translanguaging practices to enhance students’ vocabulary comprehension, such as creating real-life scenarios (line 17) and using body gestures (Figure #3). When students responded in L1 (line 07), the teacher repeated their answer in L1 (line 09), recognizing that students found it easier to express meaning in their native language. Despite this support for L1 use, the teacher consistently switched back to L2 to reinforce vocabulary understanding. By integrating real-life contexts, body gestures, and L1 use, the teacher effectively stimulated students’ motivation and enhanced their vocabulary learning.

Table 2:

Video-stimulated-recall-interview (Extract 1).

Classroom interaction transcript	Video stimulated recall interview excerpt	Teacher’s perspectives	Researchers’ interpretations of the teacher’s perspectives
	01 X: Here students explained drill in Chinese and you repeated it 02 T: I think it is acceptable if they could explain difficult vocabulary in Chinese. After students could express the Chinese meaning, we could use some English to explain it to them or give them the context. I also want to encourage and motivate them by repeating their Chinese explanation 03: X: It doesn’t matter if it’s L1 or L2 at the beginning, but in the end you will explain it to them in L2 04 T: Exactly 05 X: Here you used body language to explain the word 06 T: I still want to use some vivid body language to help students understand the word. Then I added some actions so that they could associate the action with drill. It would also deepen their impression and then they were able to use the word 07 X: And then apply it to real daily life, right? 08 T: In fact, I can give some other examples, not just about installing this (air-conditioner). I can also let students imagine what kind of context could be created to use this word. You can just give them the words and the Chinese meaning, but rote memorization is very far-fetched. Hence, sometimes you have to think of different ways to motivate students	T believes in using L1 to explain difficult vocabulary initially, followed by L2 to provide context and reinforce understanding. T also emphasizes using body language to make vocabulary memorable and applicable in real-life contexts, aiming to motivate and deepen students’ learning through varied teaching methods.	T’s approach aligns with translanguaging by valuing students’ L1 for initial understanding, then integrating L2 to reinforce and expand knowledge, and using both languages and body language to create meaningful, context-driven learning experiences that enhance motivation and retention.

5.1.2 Extract 2: combining body gestures with active use of L1

Prior to the extract, T guided students to read a text, encouraging them to pay attention to unfamiliar words and phrases. T then shifted the focus to teaching the new vocabulary close up. Initially, T displayed an example sentence on the PPT slide and initiated a question (lines 01–03), but students remained silent. To clarify the meaning of close up, T introduced the initial explanation (line 05) and incorporated dynamic gestures to enhance students’ comprehension by opening her arms with fingers extended and palms facing downward, moving both arms toward the front of her chest until the fingers of her right and left hands touched each other (Figure #7). After that, T further explained close up (lines 09–15) with a more exaggerated body movement by putting her arms in a hugging position and extending her fingers with palms facing herself, moving her arms inward from both sides until the two arms are crossed in front of her chest (Figure #8).

To assess students’ understanding of close up, T invited responses in students’ L1 in line 17. When students provided an incorrect answer (line 19), T corrected it in L1 as well (lines 21–23). T then presented another example sentence on the screen (lines 25–29), using specific gestures to illustrate close up in this context (Figure #9). Additionally, T employed sound extension, varied intonation, and emphasis while reading the sentence (lines 29–33), maintaining her gestures as she read it twice for emphasis.

Finally, T asked students if they understood the meaning of close up in the sentence and offered a hint in their L1 (line 37). The students and T then collaboratively arrived at the correct answer in L1 (line 39), confirming students’ conceptual understanding of the vocabulary.

In this extract, T employs a structured sequence of translanguaging practices to support students’ understanding of the term close up. Initially, the teacher introduces the concept through multimodal practices, using controlled gestures to visually represent the meaning. For instance, T opens her arms with fingers extended and moves them towards her chest until her hands meet, symbolizing the concept of close up. To further solidify understanding, T then exaggerates the gesture, moving her arms into a hugging position with fingers extended and palms facing inward, providing a more vivid, embodied representation of the term.

After these demonstrations, T invites responses in students’ L1 to assess their comprehension. When students respond incorrectly, T offers corrective feedback in L1, leveraging their familiar language to clarify misunderstandings and build confidence. To reinforce the term further, T provides another example sentence and accompanies it with gestures, integrating paralinguistic features such as sound extension, varied intonation, and emphasis to underscore key points.

This systematic use of translanguaging practices, including gestures, body movements, L1 scaffolding, and paralinguistic features, creates a cohesive and accessible learning experience, allowing students to develop a deeper, contextually grounded understanding of close up.

In the interview (see Table 3), the teacher expressed employing various translanguaging resources to enhance Knowledge Building, including different body gestures (Figures #7–9), and students’ L1 (lines 23 and 37). Example sentences were also used by T to create different contexts for students to grasp vocabulary meaning. When students hesitated to answer, the teacher intentionally used their L1 to motivate them. This demonstrated the teacher’s use of diverse linguistic, paralinguistic, and multimodal resources to boost students’ motivation and support vocabulary acquisition.

Table 3:

Video-stimulated-recall-interview (Extract 2).

Classroom interaction transcript	Video stimulated recall interview excerpt	Teacher’s perspectives	Researchers’ interpretations of the teacher’s perspectives
	01 X: You often put vocabulary in an example sentence to explain them 02 T: You can put it in a context and motivate them imagine and guess first, and then I will give them some explanations with gestures. So in fact, using semantic connections with real life and putting them in a context will make it easier for students to guess and learn. They will also encounter new words or phrases in the college entrance examination 03 X: When you said narrow something, you put your hands together like this (repeating the same gesture). Then when you said close something, you repeated the action again. This time the action was different and the amplitude become larger. Why was it different from the previous one? 04 T: I wanted to let them see and experience the dynamic process of this action vividly. And the former one was narrowing, and we only needed to narrow it, but this one was closing, so it was best to cross our two hands together. There was a connection between the two actions. Besides, when I was explaining narrow, I did this for the first time and then felt students had some reactions. So the second time I exaggerated the action to let them know what close up was. It can attract students’ attention by making it a big action 05 Then why did you actively ask your classmates what close up means in Chinese after your use of body language? 06 T: Because there are deviations between English and Chinese. You can feel that some English words represent an action, but students didn’t know clearly which English word pointed to the action. So I wanted them to explain it in Chinese. I also wanted to motivate them to answer questions by asking them in Chinese. Since they don’t want to answer in English, I just took the initiative to ask in Chinese. I thought they should be able to participate in answering and learning 07 X: Here you corrected students’ explanation in Chinese. Why did you correct it in Chinese instead of in English? 08 T: Firstly, I wanted to prevent students from confusing transitive and intransitive verbs, which they might not understand well in English. Besides, I corrected in Chinese because student answered in Chinese. This was consistency. In fact, using Chinese to correct is also affirmation. They will have the confidence that “I guess at least half of it right.” 09 X: And why did some of the same questions have longer pauses when asked a second time? 10 T: This was because I wanted to give students more time to think, and at the same time to reduce their pressure and difficulties, so that they could be dare to answer questions instead of keeping silent	T uses contextualized gestures to enhance vocabulary learning, connecting actions to meanings. By adjusting and exaggerating gestures, T helps students grasp semantic differences, engage their attention, and make the learning process more dynamic and memorable. T uses L1 and body language to clarify vocabulary, ensuring understanding and consistency. Correcting in L1 builds confidence, while longer pauses give students time to think, reducing pressure and encouraging active participation.	T’s use of gestures in translanguaging bridges nonverbal and verbal cues, integrating multiple modalities to deepen understanding, highlight semantic nuances, and enhance student engagement. T’s translanguaging approach integrates L1 and body language to enhance comprehension, maintain consistency, and build confidence. This strategy fosters a supportive L2 vocabulary learning environment, encouraging deeper understanding and active student engagement.

5.2 Focus group with students

6.1 Translanguaging practices shifted and enhanced students’ L2 motivation

Thematic analysis provided insights that students’ L2MSS shifted from Ought-to L2 Self to Ideal L2 Self and L2 Learning Experience, and overall L2 motivation was enhanced.

Translanguaging allows students to use their L1 for meaning-making during the interaction, reducing the stress of learning and the fear of making mistakes, which in turn increases their participation, confidence, and motivation. Multimodal resources can also be used in designing the course to reduce learning difficulty and enhance conceptual understanding of vocabulary. For instance, the teacher used cartoon animation as introduction to motivate students (see Figure 10) and drew on vocabulary map to promote comprehension (see Figure 11). In a word, the positive impact of translanguaging on students’ Ideal L2 Self may stem from the opportunity for L2 learners to visualize their future selves through engaging and enjoyable activities which reduced learning difficulty, clarified their goals, and boosted their confidence in pursuing them. This finding echoes previous research considering vision as a crucial element to stimulate motivation in L2 learning (Dörnyei and Kubanyiova 2014; Rad and Alipour 2023; Sato and Lara 2019).

Figure 10:

Cartoon animation was used to enhance L2 motivation.

Figure 11:

Vocabulary map was used to facilitate L2 vocabulary learning.

Besides, translanguaging practices decrease learning obstacles and create abosorbing and pleasurable L2 learning environment for students. This may lead to their focus on the L2 Learning Experience of L2MSS. Previous research also suggested better Ideal L2 Self might produce positive attitudes toward the L2 Learning Experience, which can enhance performance and engagement (Csizér and Kormos 2009; Kormos et al. 2011). This implies that translanguaging practices elicit positive emotions, leading to better vocabulary acquisition (Dörnyei et al. 2015).

In addition, all the students participating in the focus group agreed that translanguaging practices enhanced their L2 motivation. Students’ attitudes generally supported previous findings that translanguaging can enhance learning motivation (Creese and Blackledgen 2010; Tai and Wong 2023; Wang and Shen 2024). However, this study differs from others where not all students found translanguaging effective (Fang and Liu 2020; Romanowski 2020). This might result from the examination-oriented Chinese EFL context deprived motivating and engaging L2 classrooms from students. In contrast, they went through emotionally satisfactory and interesting learning experiences through translanguaging practices in this research.

6.2 How the teacher taught vocabulary through translanguaging practices was examined

The MCA analysis across all extracts show that the teacher was engaged in translanguaging practices, utilizing a wide range of linguistic, paralinguistic, and multimodal resources for vocabulary teaching. In Extract 1, the teacher created a real-life scenario of installing an air-conditioner to explain drill and repeated students’ L1 to affirm their responses, reinforcing the meaning of the word. Extract 2 highlights how the teacher combined rich body gestures with active use of students’ L1 to deepen understanding and enhance motivation in the specific context created by example sentences. Throughout these extracts, the teacher also used other linguistic and semiotic resources, such as intonation, varied pauses, and emphasis. Post-video-stimulated-recall interviews reveal that the construction of translanguaging spaces were shaped by the teacher’s use of body and hand gestures, students’ L1, and real-life scenarios to achieve the pedagogical goals of promoting students’ recognition, memorization, understanding, application of vocabulary and motivation.

Previous research found teachers employed various translanguaging practices in online classrooms, creating interactive translanguaging spaces (Ho and Tai 2021). This translanguage space was also observed in this offline study. In addition, Tai (2024c) highlighted how students used multilingual and multimodal resources to demonstrate their grasp of L2 vocabulary concepts. In this study, students similarly used their L1 to show conceptual understanding of vocabulary. Moreover, Zhang and Chan (2021) observed that teachers used multiple languages and visual aids in vocabulary teaching. In this study, the teacher strategically switched between L1 and L2 to explain vocabulary and motivate students. Furthermore, Tai and Khabbazbashi (2019) identified talk plus gesture format and embodied enactments as explanations in vocabulary teaching for beginning-level adults. This research enriched empirical findings by identifying new characteristics in senior high school EFL contexts, including creating a real-life scenario and repeating students’ L1, and combining body gestures with active use of L1.

Overall, this study provides evidence that students’ L2 development is shaped by sociocultural activities jointly managed within the learning environment. Through this dynamic process involving multilingual and multimodal practices, students achieve L2 vocabulary acquisition.

6.3 Students’ perceptions and attitudes toward translanguaging practices in vocabulary learning were explored

Thematic analysis indicates that using students’ L1 served multiple functions: reducing anxiety, increasing interest and retention, facilitating the understanding of complex concepts, and ensuring inclusivity for students with varying proficiency levels. These results challenge the argument by Ticheloven et al. (2019) that L1 use in the classroom might counteract language objectives. Additionally, multimodal resources were found to significantly enhance vocabulary learning, capturing students’ attention, deepening understanding, and making learning more enjoyable and less stressful, thus boosting L2 motivation. These outcomes align with previous research suggesting that translanguaging creates a harmonious classroom atmosphere (Fang and Liu 2020), as also echoed by the teacher in the post-video-stimulated-recall interviews.

None of the students in the focus group raised concerns about challenges in translanguaging practices, contrasting with Ticheloven et al. (2019), who identified several pedagogical difficulties. This may result from these students’ high level of English proficiency on average. In the focus group, students mentioned that English courses often failed to teach real-life vocabulary usage. Such a gap could be addressed by translanguaging practices, such as creating real-life scenarios and everyday metaphors, which were also used to enhance content and language integrated learning in EMI classrooms (Tai and Li 2020, 2023). In addition, Li and Tai (2024) found that Chinese EFL learners with an Ought-to L2 Self were inclined to support L1 use. The findings of this study corroborate their conclusion, demonstrating that with Ought-to L2 Self standing at the dominant position in the examination-oriented Chinese EFL context, students tend to favor L1 use and support translanguaging. This also supplements the findings of Lee and Lo (2017) and Yamagami (2023), highlighting the complex interplay between motivational constructs and language attitudes in educational settings.