Chitin, a key factor in immune regulation: lesson from infection with fungi and chitin bearing parasites

References

Alvarez F.J. 2014. The effect of chitin size, shape, source and purification method on immune recognition. Molecules, 19, 4433-4451. DOI: 10.3390/molecules19044433Search in Google Scholar

Araujo A.C., Souto-Padron T., de Souza W. 1993. Cytochemical localization of carbohydrate residues in microfilariae of Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi. Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry, 41, 571-578. DOI: 10.1177/41. 4.8450196Search in Google Scholar

Arnold K., Brydon L.J., Chappell L.H., Gooday G.W. 1993. Chitinolytic activities in Heligmosomoides polygyrus and their role in egg hatching. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 58, 317-323. DOI: 10.1016/0166-6851(93)90054-2Search in Google Scholar

Bajaj G., Van Alstine W.G., Yeo Y. 2012. Zwitterionic chitosan derivative, a new biocompatible pharmaceutical excipient, prevents endotoxin-mediated cytokine release. PLoS ONE, 7, e30899. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030899Search in Google Scholar

Bass D.A., Szejda P. 1979. Mechanisms of killing of newborn larvae of Trichinella spiralis by neutrophils and eosinophils killing by generation of hydrogen peroxide in vitro. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 64, 1558-1564. DOI: org/10.1172/ JCI109616Search in Google Scholar

Brodaczewska K., Doligalska M. 2012. In vivo stimulation of peritoneal cells by chitosan administered in drinking water to mice. Progress on Chemistry and Application of Chitin and its Derivatives, 17, 107-112Search in Google Scholar

Brodaczewska K., Doligalska M. 2013. Differential effects of low and high molecular weight chitosan administered intraperitoneally to mice infected with Heligmosomoides polygyrus. Progress on Chemistry and Application of Chitin and its Derivatives, 18, 77-84Search in Google Scholar

Bueter C.L., Specht C.A., Levitz S.M. 2013. Innate Sensing of Chitin and Chitosan. Plos Pathogens, 9, e1003080. DOI: 10.1371/ journal.ppat.1003080Search in Google Scholar

Canali M.M., Porporatto C., Pilar A.M., Bianco I.D., Correa S.G. 2010. Signals elicited at the intestinal epithelium upon chitosan feeding contribute to immunomodulatory activity and biocompatibility of the polysaccharide. Vaccine, 28, 5718-5724. DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.06.027Search in Google Scholar

Cancrini G. 2006. Human infections due to nematode helminths nowadays: epidemiology and diagnostic tools. Parassitologia, 48, 53-56Search in Google Scholar

Cash H.L., Whitham C.V., Behrendt C.L., Hooper L.V. 2006. Symbiotic bacteria direct expression of an intestinal bactericidal lectin. Science, 313, 1126-1130. DOI: 10.1126/science. 1127119Search in Google Scholar

Chai L.Y.A., Netea M.G., Vonk A.G., Kullberg B-J. 2009. Fungal strategies for overcoming host innate immune response. Medical Mycology, 47, 227-236. DOI: 10.1080/136937808022 09082Search in Google Scholar

Chang N.C.A., Hung S.I., Hwa K.Y., Kato I., Chen J.E., Liu C.H., Chang A.C. 2001. A macrophage protein, Ym1, transiently expressed during inflammation is a novel mammalian lectin. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 276, 17497-17506. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M010417200Search in Google Scholar

Chen F., Liu Z., Wu W., Rozo C., Bowdridge S., Millman A., van Rooijen N., Urban J.F., Wynn T.A., Gause W.C. 2012. An essential role for TH2-type responses in limiting acute tissue damage during experimental helminth infection. Nature Medicine, 18, 260-266. DOI: 10.1038/nm.2628Search in Google Scholar

Da Silva C.A., Chalouni C., Williams A., Hartl D., Lee C.G., Elias J.A. 2009. Chitin is a size-dependent regulator of macrophage TNF and IL-10 production. Journal of Immunology, 182, 3573-3582. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0802113Search in Google Scholar

Da Silva C.A., Hartl D., Liu W., Lee C.G., Elias J.A. 2008. TLR-2 and IL-17A in chitin-induced macrophage activation and acute inflammation. The Journal of Immunology, 181, 4279-4286. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.6.4279Search in Google Scholar

Denkers E.Y., Wassom D.L., Hayes C.E. 1990. Characterization of Trichinella spiralis antigens sharing an immunodominant, carbohydrate-associated determinant distinct from phosphorylcholine. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 41, 241-249. DOI: org/10.1016/0166-6851(90) 90187-Q Search in Google Scholar

Doligalska M., Rzepecka J., Drela N., Donskow K., Gerwel-Wronka M. 2006. The role of TGF-β in mice infected with Heligmosomoides polygyrus. Parasite Immunology, 28, 387-395. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00845.x Everts B., Smits H.H., Hokke C.H., Yazdanbakhsh M. 2010.Search in Google Scholar

Helminths and dendritic cells: sensing and regulating via pattern recognition receptors, Th2 and Treg responses. European Journal of Immunology, 40, 1525-1537. DOI: 10.1002/eji. 200940109Search in Google Scholar

Gebreselassie N.G., Moorhead A.R., Fabre V., Gagliardo L.F., Lee N.A., Lee J.J., Appleton J.A. 2012. Eosinophils preserve parasitic nematode larvae by regulating local immunity. Journal of Immunology, 188, 417-425. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol. 1101980Search in Google Scholar

Geng J., Plenefisch J., Komuniecki P.R., Komuniecki R. 2002. Secretion of a novel developmentally regulated chitinase (family 19 glycosyl hydrolase) into the perivitelline fluid of the parasitic nematode, Ascaris suum. Molecular and Biochemi cal Parasitology, 124, 11-21. DOI: org/10.1016/S0166-6851(02)00155-X Search in Google Scholar

Grigorian A., Araujo L., Naidu N.N., Place D.J., Choudhury B., Demetriou M. 2011. N-acetylglucosamine inhibits T-helper 1(Th1)/T-helper 17 (Th17) cell responses and treats experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 286, 40133-40141. DOI: 10.1074/jbc. M111.277814Search in Google Scholar

Hamann K.H., Barker R.L., Loegering D.A., Gleich G.J. 1987. Comparative toxicity of purified human eosinophil granule proteins for newborn larvae of Trichinella spiralis. Journal of Parasitology, 73, 523-529. DOI: 10.2307/3282130Search in Google Scholar

Harbord M., Novelli M., Canas B., Power D., Davis C., Godovac- Zimmermann J., Roes J., Segal A.W. 2002. Ym1 Is a Neutrophil Granule Protein That Crystallizes in p47phox-deficient Mice. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 277, 5468-5475. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M110635200Search in Google Scholar

Heath-Heckman E.A.C., McFall-Ngai M.J. 2011. The occurrence of chitin in the hemocytes of invertebrates. Zoology, 114, 191-198. DOI:10.1016/j.zool.2011.02.002Search in Google Scholar

Holcomb I.N., Kabakoff R.C., Chan B., Baker T.W., Gurney A., Henzel W., Nelson C., Lowman H.B., Wright B.D., Skelton N.J., Frantz G.D., Tumas D.B., Peale F.V., Jr, Shelton D.L., Hebert C.C. 2000. FIZZ1, a novel cysteine-rich secreted protein associated with pulmonary inflammation, defines a new gene family. The EMBO Journal, 19, 4046-4055. DOI: 10.1093/ emboj/19.15.4046Search in Google Scholar

Huber S., Hoffmann R., Muskens F., Voehringer D. 2010. Alternatively activated macrophages inhibit T-cell proliferation by Stat6-dependent expression of PD-L2. Blood, 116, 3311-3320. DOI: 10.1182/blood-2010-02-271981Search in Google Scholar

Jarmila V., Vavrikova E. 2011. Chitosan derivatives with antimicrobial, antitumour and antioxidant activities-a review. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 17, 3596-3607. DOI: 10.2174/1381612 11798194468Search in Google Scholar

Kaushal N.A., Simpson A.J., Hussain R., Ottesen E.A. 1984. Brugia malayi: stage-specific expression of carbohydrates containing N-acetyl-D-glucosamine on the sheathed surfaces of microfilariae. Experimental Parasitology, 58, 182-187. DOI: 10.1016/0014-4894(84)90033-X Search in Google Scholar

Koller B., Muller-Wiefel A.S., Rupec R., Korting H.C., Ruzicka T. 2011. Chitin modulates innate immune responses of keratinocytes. PloS One, 6, e16594. DOI: 10.1371/journal. pone.0016594Search in Google Scholar

Konopka J.B. 2012. N-acetylglucosamine functions in cell signaling. Scientifica, Article ID 489208. DOI: org/10.6064/2012/ 489208Search in Google Scholar

Kreindler J.L., Steele C., Nguyen N., Chan Y.R., Pilewski J.M., Alcorn J.F., Vyas Y.M., Aujla S.J., Finelli P., Blanchard M., Zeigler S.F., Logar A., Hartigan E., Kurs-Lasky M., Rockette H., Ray A., Kolls J.K. 2010. Vitamin D3 attenuates Th2 responses to Aspergillus fumigatus mounted by CD4+ T cells from cystic fibrosis patients with allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 120, 3242-3254. DOI: 10.1172/JCI42388Search in Google Scholar

Kuroda E., Yoshida Y., En Shan B., Yamashita U. 2001. Suppression of macrophage interleukin-12 and tumour necrosis factoralpha production in mice infected with Toxocara canis. Parasite Immunology, 23, 305-311. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3024. 2001.00387Search in Google Scholar

Lee C.G., Da Silva C.A., Dela Cruz C.S., Ahangari F., Ma B., Kang M-J., He C-H., Takyar S., Elias J.A. 2011. Role of chitin and chitinase/chitinase-like proteins in inflammation, tissue remodeling, and injury. Annual Review of Physiology, 73, 479-501. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-012110-142250 Search in Google Scholar

Lee C.G., Da Silva C.A., Lee J.Y., Hartl D., Elias J.A. 2008. Chitin regulation of immune responses: an old molecule with new roles. Current Opinion in Immunology, 20, 684-689. DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2008.10.002Search in Google Scholar

Liu Q., Arseculeratne C., Liu Z., Whitmire J., Grusby M.J., Finkelman F.D., Darling T.N., Cheever A.W., Swearengen J., Urban J.F., Gause W.C. 2004. Simultaneous deficiency in CD28 and STAT6 results in chronic ectoparasite-induced inflammatory skin disease. Infection and Immunity, 72, 3706-3715. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.72.7.3706-3715.2004Search in Google Scholar

Lucas A.H., Rittenhouse-Olson K., Kronenberg M., Apicella M.A., Wang D., Schreiber J.R., Taylor C.E. 2010. Carbohydrate moieties as vaccine candidates: Meeting summary. Vaccine, 28, 1121-1131. DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.05.055Search in Google Scholar

Lysek H., Malinsky J., Janisch R. 1985. Ultrastructure of eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides Linnaeus, 1758. I. Egg-Shells. Folia Parasitologica, 32, 381-384 Search in Google Scholar

Malinovsky F.G., Fangel J.U., Willats W.G. 2014. The role of the cell wall in plant immunity. Frontiers in Plant Science, 5, 178. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00178Search in Google Scholar

Marcello M.R., Singaravelu G., Singson A. 2013. Fertilization. In: (Eds. Schedl T.) Germ Cell Development in C. elegans. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 757. Springer Science+Business Media New York, 321-350. DOI: 10.1007/ 978-1-4614-4015-4_11Search in Google Scholar

Masure D., Vlaminck J., Wang T., Chiers K., Van den Broeck W., Vercruysse J., Geldhof P. 2013. A role for eosinophils in the intestinal immunity against infective Ascaris suum larvae. PLOS, Neglected Tropical Diseases, 7, e2138. DOI: 10. 1371/journal.pntd.0002138Search in Google Scholar

Matsuwaki Y., Wada K., Moriyama H., Kita H. 2011. Human eosinophil innate response to Alternaria Fungus through protease- activated receptor-2. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, 155, 123-128. DOI: 10.1159/000327498Search in Google Scholar

McSorley H.J., Maizels R.M. 2012. Helminth infections and host immune regulation. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 25, 585-608. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.05040-11Search in Google Scholar

Merzendorfer H., Zimoch L. 2003. Chitin metabolism in insects: structure, function and regulation of chitin synthases and chitinases. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 206, 4393-4412. DOI: 10.1242/jeb.00709Search in Google Scholar

Mitreva M., Jasmer D.P., Zarlenga D.S., Wang Z., Abubucker S., Martin J., Taylor C.M., Yin Y., Fulton L., Minx P., Yang S.P., Warren W.C., Fulton R.S., Bhonagiri V., Zhang X., Hallsworth-Pepin K., Clifton S.W., McCarter J.P. Wilson R.K. 2011.The draft genome of the parasitic nematode Trichinella spiralis. Nature Genetics, 43, 228-235. DOI: 10.1038/ng.769Search in Google Scholar

Montovani A., Sica A., Locati M. 2007. New vistas on macrophage differentiation and activation. European Journal of Immunology, 37, 14-16. DOI: 10.1002/eji.200636910Search in Google Scholar

Mora-Montes H.M., Netea M.G., Ferwerda G., Lenardon M.D., Brown G.D., Mistry A.R., Kullberg B.J., O’Callaghan C.A., Sheth C.C., Odds F.C, Brown A.J.P., Munro C.A., Gow, N.A. 2011. Recognition and blocking of innate immunity cells by Candida albicans chitin. Infection and Immunity, 79, 1961-1970. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.01282-10Search in Google Scholar

Nair M.G., Gallagher I.J., Taylor M.D., Loke P.N., Coulson P.S., Wilson R.A., Maizels R.M., Allen J.E. 2005. Chitinase and Fizz family members are a generalized feature of nematode infection with selective upregulation of Ym1 and Fizz1 by antigen- presenting cells. Infection and Immunity, 73, 385-394. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.73.1.385-394.2005Search in Google Scholar

Neuhaus B., Bresciani J., Christensen C.M., Sommer C. 1997. Morphological variation of the corona radiata in Oesophagostomum dentatum, O-quadrispinulatum, and O-radiatum (Nema toda: Strongyloidea). Journal of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 64, 128-136Search in Google Scholar

Ngo D.-N. 2012. Antioxidant, antimicrobial properties of chitin, chitosan and their derivatives. In: (Eds. Kim S.-K.) Chitin and Chitosan derivatives. Advanced in Drug Discovery and Developments. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group, 201-212. DOI: 10.1201/b15636-14Search in Google Scholar

O’Dea E.M., Amarsaikhan N., Li H., Downey J., Steele E., Van Dyken S.J., Locksley R.M., Templeton S.P. 2014. Eosinophils are Recruited in Response to Chitin Exposure and Enhance Th2-Mediated Immune Pathology in Aspergillus fumigatus infection. Infection and Immunity, 82, 3199-3205. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.01990-14Search in Google Scholar

Overdijk B., Van Steijn G.J., Odds F.C. 1996. Chitinase levels in guinea pig blood are increased after systemic infection with Aspergillus fumigatus. Glycobiology, 6, 627-634. DOI: 10.1093/glycob/6.6.627Search in Google Scholar

Paliwal R., Paliwal S.R., Agrawal G.P., Vyas S.P. 2012. Chitosan nanoconstructs forimproved oral delivery of low molecular weight heparin: in vitro and in vivo evaluation. International Journal of Pharmacy, 422, 179-184. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm. 2011.10.048Search in Google Scholar

Pilarczyk B., Doligalska M.J., Donskow-Schmelter K., Balicka-Ramisz A., Ramisz A. 2008. Selenium supplementation enhances the protective response to Toxocara canis larvae in mice. Parasite Immunology, 30, 394-402. DOI: 10.1111/ j.1365-3024.2008.01039.x Search in Google Scholar

Pillai C.K.S., Paul W., Sharma C.P. 2009. Chitin and chitosan polymers: Chemistry, solubility and fiber formation. Progress in Polymer Science, 34, 641-678. DOI: org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci. 2009.04.001Search in Google Scholar

Pinelli E., Aranzamendi C. 2012. Toxocara infection and its association with allergic manifestations. Endocrine Metabolic & Immune Disorders Drug Targets, 12, 33-44. DOI: 10.2174/ 187153012799278956Search in Google Scholar

Poltorak A., He X., Smirnova I., Liu M.Y., Van Huffel C., Du X., Birdwell D., Alejos E., Silva M., Galanos C., Freudenberg M., Ricciardi-Castagnoli P., Layton B., Beutler B. 1998. Defective LPS signaling in C3H/HeJ and C57BL/10ScCr mice: mutations in Tlr4 gene. Science, 282, 2085-2088. DOI: 10. 1126/science.282.5396.2085Search in Google Scholar

Porporatto C., Bianco I.D., Cabanillas A.M., Correa S.G. 2004. Early events associated to the oral co-administration of type II collagen and chitosan: induction of anti-inflammatory cytokines. International Immunology, 16, 433-441. DOI: 10.1093/intimm/ dxh051Search in Google Scholar

Porporatto C., Bianco I.D., Correa S.G. 2005. Local and systemic activity of the polysaccharide chitosan at lymphoid tissues after oral administration. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 78, 62-69. DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0904541Search in Google Scholar

Porporatto C., Canali M.M., Bianco I.D., Correa S.G. 2009a. Ability of the polysaccharide chitosan to inhibit proliferation of CD4+ lymphocytes from mucosal inductive sites, in vitro and in vivo. Cell Proliferation, 42, 780-787. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2184.2009.00634.x Search in Google Scholar

Porporatto C., Canali M.M., Bianco I.D., Correa S.G. 2009b. The biocompatible polysaccharide chitosan enhances the oral tolerance to type II collagen. Clinical and Experimental Immunology, 155, 79-87. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03777.x Search in Google Scholar

Reese T.A., Liang H.E., Tager A.M., Luster A.D., Van Rooijen N., Voehringer D., Locksley R.M. 2007. Chitin induces accumulation in tissue of innate immune cells associated with allergy. Nature, 447, 92-96. DOI: 10.1038/nature05746Search in Google Scholar

Richardson M.D. 2005. Changing patterns and trends in systemic fungal infections. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 56, i5-i11. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dki218Search in Google Scholar

Romani L. 2004. Immunity to fungal infections. Nature Reviews Immunology, 4, 11-24. DOI: 10.1038/nri1255Search in Google Scholar

Roy R.M., Wuthrich M., Klein B.S. 2012. Chitin elicits CCL2 from airway epithelial cells and induces CCR2-dependent innate allergic inflammation in the lung. The Journal of Immunology, 189, 2545-2552. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200689Search in Google Scholar

Satoh T., Takeuchi O., Vandenbon A., Yasuda K., Tanaka Y., Kumagai Y., Miyake T., Matsushita K., Okazaki T., Saitoh T., Honma K., Matsuyama T., Yui K., Tsujimura T., Standley D.M., Nakanishi K., Nakai K, Akira, S. 2010. The Jmjd3-Irf4 axis regulates M2 macrophage polarization and host responses against helminth infection. Nature Immunology, 11, 936-944. DOI: 10.3410/j.6283956.6364054Search in Google Scholar

Schlosser A., Thomsen T., Moeller J.B., Nielsen O., Tornoe I., Mollenhauer J., Moestrup S.K, Holmskov U. 2009. Characterization of FIBCD1 as an acetyl group-binding receptor that binds chitin. The Journal of Immunology, 183, 3800-3809. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901526Search in Google Scholar

Shamri R., Xenakis J.J., Spencer L.A. 2011. Eosinophils in innate immunity: an evolving story. Cell and Tissue Research, 343, 57-83. DOI: 10.1007/s00441-010-1049-6Search in Google Scholar

Shibata Y., Honda I., Justice J.P., Van Scott MR., Nakamura R.M., Myrvik Q.N. 2001. Th1 adjuvant N-acetyl-D-glucosamine polymer up-regulates Th1 immunity but down-regulates Th2 immunity against a mycobacterial protein (MPB-59) in interleukin-10-knockout and wild-type mice. Infection and Immunity, 69, 6123-6130. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.69.10.6123-6130.2001Search in Google Scholar

Shibata Y., Metzger W.J., Myrvik Q.N. 1997. Chitin particle-induced cell-mediated immunity is inhibited by soluble mannan: mannose receptor-mediated phagocytosis initiates IL-12 production. The Journal of Immunology, 159, 2462-2467Search in Google Scholar

Suginta W., Robertson P.A., Austin B., Fry S.C., Fothergill-Gillmore L.A. 2000. Chitinases from vibrio: Activity screening and purification of chiA from Vibrio carchariae. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 89, 76-84. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2672. 2000.01076.x Search in Google Scholar

Sukhithasri V., Nisha N., Biswas L., Kumar, V.A., Biswas R. 2013. Innate immune recognition of microbial cell wall components and microbial strategies to evade such recognitions. Microbiological Research, 168, 396-406. DOI: 10.16/j.micres.2013.02.005Search in Google Scholar

Sullivan B.A., Nagarajan N.A., Wingender G., Wang J., Scott I., Tsuji M., Franck R.W., Porcelli S.A., Zajonc D.M., Kronenberg M. 2010. Mechanisms for glycolipid antigen-driven cytokine polarization by Va14i NKT cells. The Journal of Immunology, 184, 141-153. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902880Search in Google Scholar

Tachu B., Pillai S., Lucius R., Pogonka T. 2008. Essential Role of Chitinase in the Development of the Filarial Nematode Acanthocheilonema viteae. Infection and Immunity, 76, 221-228. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.00701-07Search in Google Scholar

Tharanathan R.N., Kittur F.S. 2003. Chitin: the undisputed biomolecule of great potential. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43, 61-87. DOI: 10.1080/10408690390826455Search in Google Scholar

Van Dyken S.J., Mohapatra A., Nussbaum J.C., Molofsky A.B., Thornton E.E., Ziegler S.F., McKenzie A.N.J., Krummel M.F., Liang H-E., Locksley R.M. 2014. Chitin activates parallel immune modules that direct distinct inflammatory responses via innate lymphoid Type 2 and gd T cells. Immunity, 40, 414-424. DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2014.02.003 Search in Google Scholar

Vega K., Kalkum M. 2012. Chitin, Chitinase responses and invasive fungal infections. International Journal of Microbiology, Article ID 920459. DOI: org/10.1155/2012/920459Search in Google Scholar

Venturiello S.M., Verzoletti M.L., Costantino S.N., Forastiero M.A., Roux M.E. 2007. Early pulmonary response in rats infected with Trichinella spiralis. Parasitology, 134, 281-288. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031182006001454 Search in Google Scholar

Veronico P., Gray L.J., Jones J.T., Bazzicalupo P., Arbucci S., Cortese M.R., Di Vito M., De Giorgi C. 2001.Nematode chitin synthases: gene structure, expression and function in Caenorhabditis elegans and the plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne artiellia. Molecular Genetics and Genomics, 266, 28-34. DOI: 10.1007/s004380100513Search in Google Scholar

Wagener J., Malireddi R.S., Lenardon M.D., Koberle M., Vautier S., MacCallum D.M., Biedermann T., Schaller M., Netea M. G., Kanneganti T.D., Brown G.D., Brown A.J.P., Gow N.A. 2014. Fungal Chitin Dampens Inflammation through IL-10 Induction Mediated by NOD2 and TLR9 Activation. PLoS Pathogens, 10, e1004050. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004050Search in Google Scholar

Wagner C.J., Huber S., Wirth S., Voehringer D. 2010. Chitin induces upregulation of B7-H1 on macrophages and inhibits T-cell proliferation. European Journal of Immunology, 40, 2882-2890. DOI: 10.1002/eji.201040422Search in Google Scholar

Walton S.F., Pizzutto S., Slender A., Viberg L., Holt D., Hales B.J., Kemp D.J., Currie B.J., Rolland J.M., O’Hehir R. 2010. Increased allergic immune response to Sarcoptes scabiei anti- gens in crusted versus ordinary scabies. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology, 17, 1428-1438. DOI: 10.1128/CVI.00195-10Search in Google Scholar

Wharton D.A. 1980. Nematode egg-shells. Parasitology, 81, 447-463. DOI: org/10.1017/S003118200005616X Yasuda K., Matsumoto M., Nakanishi K. 2014. Importance of both innate immunity and acquired immunity for rapid expulsion of S. venezuelensis. Frontiers in Immunology, 5, 118. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00118Search in Google Scholar

Yoon J., Ponikau J.U., Lawrence C.B., Kita H. 2008. Innate antifungal immunity of human eosinophils mediated by a integrin, CD11b. The Journal of Immunology, 181, 2907-2915. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.4.2907Search in Google Scholar

Zhang Y., Foster J.M., Nelson L.S., Ma D., Carlow C.K. 2005. The chitin synthase genes chs-1 and chs-2 are essential for C. elegans development and responsible for chitin deposition in the eggshell and pharynx, respectively. Developmental Biology, 285, 330-339. DOI: org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.06.037 Search in Google Scholar