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59. Society, 450-250 BCE

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Etruscology
This chapter is in the book Etruscology

Abstract

The economic crisis of the southern Etruscan coastal metropolises in the second half of the fifth century BCE, whose social consequences are unfortunately little known to us, appears to have been overcome by a systematic reorganization of the territory at the beginning of the fourth century. The previously broader urban upper class developed into an increasingly elitist oligarchy of the nobility, in which a few gentes, strategically scattered across the territory, set the political and social tone. This circumstance was characteristic for all of Etruria and persisted until the merger into the Roman state, which promoted the status quo in its own interests. Large-scale landholdings now once again functioned as the economic basis of the nobility; ancestor cults, outward representation, and exhibitions of luxury were integral patterns of behavior of these elites. Contrasting with them, especially in the larger and smaller urban centers, were large parts of the population who we shall call the free middle classes. The epigraphic and archaeological evidence from the funerary realm reveal their existence. This is true for cities in inner Etruria like Chiusi and Perugia (with their many funerary inscriptions of Etruscan citizens) as well as for coastal Tarquinia. Their rights were not equal to those of the principes. Transition to the lower class, the urban proletariat, was probably also fluid in Etruria. It seems that free men in rural northern Etruria could be small landowners, while in the south, beginning in the third century, they were adversely affected by large-scale Roman land confiscations. Although it is continually suggested in both older and newer research, there exists no concrete evidence of “half-free” classes of population. Client-patron relationships created a moderate balance of interests that lay in private rather than state hands. Slaveholding increased sharply in the Late Etruscan period; slaves worked in the fields of the large landowners, in manufacturing, in the metal industries (e.g. Populonia), and in private households. In contrast to Rome, most freedmen did not immediately achieve citizenship; as a rule only their descendants were entitled to it. Social tensions could lead to open revolts (e.g., in Arretium, Volsinii veteres); but the unclear terminology of the ancient authors and the indubitably broad front of discriminated persons strongly hinder a deeper understanding of these events. The tendencies toward social liberalization typical of the Hellenistic period are also perceptible in Etruria; the weakening of the rigid Archaic family structures brought the female element more freedom (e.g. matrimonial law). The epigraphic documentation of women is now more substantial than in the sixth and fifth centuries-especially in funerary inscriptions, but also in dedicatory onesbut clearly remains less substantial than that of men. In the aristocratic environment, proud female figures made their appearance along the lines of Roman matrons; they played an important role as a means of alliance between the great gentes, but always against the background of basic inequality of rights.

Abstract

The economic crisis of the southern Etruscan coastal metropolises in the second half of the fifth century BCE, whose social consequences are unfortunately little known to us, appears to have been overcome by a systematic reorganization of the territory at the beginning of the fourth century. The previously broader urban upper class developed into an increasingly elitist oligarchy of the nobility, in which a few gentes, strategically scattered across the territory, set the political and social tone. This circumstance was characteristic for all of Etruria and persisted until the merger into the Roman state, which promoted the status quo in its own interests. Large-scale landholdings now once again functioned as the economic basis of the nobility; ancestor cults, outward representation, and exhibitions of luxury were integral patterns of behavior of these elites. Contrasting with them, especially in the larger and smaller urban centers, were large parts of the population who we shall call the free middle classes. The epigraphic and archaeological evidence from the funerary realm reveal their existence. This is true for cities in inner Etruria like Chiusi and Perugia (with their many funerary inscriptions of Etruscan citizens) as well as for coastal Tarquinia. Their rights were not equal to those of the principes. Transition to the lower class, the urban proletariat, was probably also fluid in Etruria. It seems that free men in rural northern Etruria could be small landowners, while in the south, beginning in the third century, they were adversely affected by large-scale Roman land confiscations. Although it is continually suggested in both older and newer research, there exists no concrete evidence of “half-free” classes of population. Client-patron relationships created a moderate balance of interests that lay in private rather than state hands. Slaveholding increased sharply in the Late Etruscan period; slaves worked in the fields of the large landowners, in manufacturing, in the metal industries (e.g. Populonia), and in private households. In contrast to Rome, most freedmen did not immediately achieve citizenship; as a rule only their descendants were entitled to it. Social tensions could lead to open revolts (e.g., in Arretium, Volsinii veteres); but the unclear terminology of the ancient authors and the indubitably broad front of discriminated persons strongly hinder a deeper understanding of these events. The tendencies toward social liberalization typical of the Hellenistic period are also perceptible in Etruria; the weakening of the rigid Archaic family structures brought the female element more freedom (e.g. matrimonial law). The epigraphic documentation of women is now more substantial than in the sixth and fifth centuries-especially in funerary inscriptions, but also in dedicatory onesbut clearly remains less substantial than that of men. In the aristocratic environment, proud female figures made their appearance along the lines of Roman matrons; they played an important role as a means of alliance between the great gentes, but always against the background of basic inequality of rights.

Chapters in this book

  1. Frontmatter i
  2. Table of contents v
  3. 1. Introduction 1
  4. Part 1
  5. I. Methods
  6. 2. An ancient question: the origin of the Etruscans 11
  7. 3. The Etruscans in Ancient literature 35
  8. 4. History of Etruscology 53
  9. 5. Etruscan Art or Art of the Etruscans? 69
  10. 6. Iconography and iconology, Nineteenth to Twenty-first centuries 79
  11. 7. Approaches to the study of the language 95
  12. 8. DNA and Etruscan identity 109
  13. II. Issues
  14. 9. Political organization and magistrates 121
  15. 10. Economy and trade 143
  16. 11. War and Weaponry 165
  17. 12. Society 179
  18. 13. Feasts. Wine and Society. eighth-sixth centuries BCE 195
  19. 14. Banqueting and food 207
  20. 15. Sports 221
  21. 16. Dance 233
  22. 17. Alphabets and language 245
  23. II. Issues
  24. 18. Religion 277
  25. 19. Death and burial 317
  26. 20. Haruspicy from the Ancient Near East to Etruria 341
  27. 21. Prophecy and divination 357
  28. II. Issues
  29. 22. Ships and Shipping 371
  30. 23. Harbors 391
  31. 24. Vehicles and roads 407
  32. 25. Mines and Metal Working 425
  33. 26. The mines on the island of Elba 445
  34. 27. Coins and mints 463
  35. 28. Weights and balances 473
  36. 29. Textiles and Dress 485
  37. 30. Musical instruments 505
  38. 31. Etruscan gold dental appliances 523
  39. Part 2
  40. III. History
  41. 32. The Historical Framework 537
  42. 33. The transition from village communities to protourban societies 561
  43. 34. The diffusion of Near Eastern cultures 581
  44. 35. Urban Civilization 617
  45. 36. Hellenism in Central Italy 645
  46. 37. Romanization 665
  47. 38. The Etruscan legacy 685
  48. IV. Civilization
  49. 39. Hut Architecture, 10th cent.-730 BCE 723
  50. 40. Handicrafts, 10th cent.-730 BCE 739
  51. 41. Society, 10th cent.-730 BCE 759
  52. 42. Ritual and cults, 10th cent.-730 BCE 779
  53. 43. Economy, 10th cent.-730 BCE 795
  54. 44. External Relationships, 10th cent.-730 BCE 811
  55. IV. Civilization
  56. 45. Art, 730–580 BCE 831
  57. 46. Handicraft, 730–580 BCE 851
  58. 47. Society, 730–580 BCE 869
  59. 48. Ritual and cults, 730–580 BCE 885
  60. 49. Economy, 730–580 BCE 901
  61. 50. External Relationships, 730–580 BC 921
  62. IV. Civilization
  63. 51. Archaic and Late Archaic Art, 580–450 BCE 943
  64. 52. Handicrafts, 580–450 BCE 971
  65. 53. Society, 580–450 BCE 985
  66. 54. Ritual and Cults, 580–450 BCE 1001
  67. 55. Economy, 580–450 BCE 1013
  68. 56. External relationships, 580–450 BCE 1031
  69. IV. Civilization
  70. 57. Late Classical and Hellenistic art, 450–250 BCE 1049
  71. 58. Handicraft, 450–250 BCE 1079
  72. 59. Society, 450-250 BCE 1101
  73. 60. Ritual and cults, 450–250 BCE 1117
  74. 61. Economy, 450–250 BCE 1129
  75. 62. External Relationships, 450–250 BCE 1141
  76. IV. Civilization
  77. 63. Art, 250–89 BCE 1161
  78. 64. Handicraft, 250–89 BCE 1173
  79. 65. Society, 250–89 BCE 1191
  80. 66. Ritual and Cults, 250–89 BCE 1203
  81. 67. Economy, 250–89 BCE 1215
  82. 68. External Relationships, 250–89 BCE 1223
  83. V. Topography of Etruria
  84. 69. The landscape and environment of Etruria 1239
  85. 70. Southern Etruria 1251
  86. 71. Northern Etruria 1299
  87. 72. Settlement Patterns and Land Use 1339
  88. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  89. 73. Southern Campania 1359
  90. 74. Northern Campania 1395
  91. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  92. 75. Emilia 1437
  93. 76-77. Romagna and the Marches 1453
  94. 78. Lombardy 1501
  95. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  96. 79. Central Italy and Rome 1533
  97. 80. Southern Italy 1551
  98. 81. Northern Italy 1565
  99. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  100. 82. South and southeast Central Europe 1585
  101. 83. Transalpine Regions 1607
  102. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  103. 84. Corsica 1641
  104. 85. Sicily 1653
  105. 86. Sardinia 1669
  106. 87. Greece. Aegean islands and Levant 1679
  107. 88. North Africa 1695
  108. 89. Southern France 1709
  109. 90. The Iberian Peninsula 1721
  110. Colour plates 1737
  111. Authors 1761
  112. Index 1767
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781934078495-059

Chapters in this book

  1. Frontmatter i
  2. Table of contents v
  3. 1. Introduction 1
  4. Part 1
  5. I. Methods
  6. 2. An ancient question: the origin of the Etruscans 11
  7. 3. The Etruscans in Ancient literature 35
  8. 4. History of Etruscology 53
  9. 5. Etruscan Art or Art of the Etruscans? 69
  10. 6. Iconography and iconology, Nineteenth to Twenty-first centuries 79
  11. 7. Approaches to the study of the language 95
  12. 8. DNA and Etruscan identity 109
  13. II. Issues
  14. 9. Political organization and magistrates 121
  15. 10. Economy and trade 143
  16. 11. War and Weaponry 165
  17. 12. Society 179
  18. 13. Feasts. Wine and Society. eighth-sixth centuries BCE 195
  19. 14. Banqueting and food 207
  20. 15. Sports 221
  21. 16. Dance 233
  22. 17. Alphabets and language 245
  23. II. Issues
  24. 18. Religion 277
  25. 19. Death and burial 317
  26. 20. Haruspicy from the Ancient Near East to Etruria 341
  27. 21. Prophecy and divination 357
  28. II. Issues
  29. 22. Ships and Shipping 371
  30. 23. Harbors 391
  31. 24. Vehicles and roads 407
  32. 25. Mines and Metal Working 425
  33. 26. The mines on the island of Elba 445
  34. 27. Coins and mints 463
  35. 28. Weights and balances 473
  36. 29. Textiles and Dress 485
  37. 30. Musical instruments 505
  38. 31. Etruscan gold dental appliances 523
  39. Part 2
  40. III. History
  41. 32. The Historical Framework 537
  42. 33. The transition from village communities to protourban societies 561
  43. 34. The diffusion of Near Eastern cultures 581
  44. 35. Urban Civilization 617
  45. 36. Hellenism in Central Italy 645
  46. 37. Romanization 665
  47. 38. The Etruscan legacy 685
  48. IV. Civilization
  49. 39. Hut Architecture, 10th cent.-730 BCE 723
  50. 40. Handicrafts, 10th cent.-730 BCE 739
  51. 41. Society, 10th cent.-730 BCE 759
  52. 42. Ritual and cults, 10th cent.-730 BCE 779
  53. 43. Economy, 10th cent.-730 BCE 795
  54. 44. External Relationships, 10th cent.-730 BCE 811
  55. IV. Civilization
  56. 45. Art, 730–580 BCE 831
  57. 46. Handicraft, 730–580 BCE 851
  58. 47. Society, 730–580 BCE 869
  59. 48. Ritual and cults, 730–580 BCE 885
  60. 49. Economy, 730–580 BCE 901
  61. 50. External Relationships, 730–580 BC 921
  62. IV. Civilization
  63. 51. Archaic and Late Archaic Art, 580–450 BCE 943
  64. 52. Handicrafts, 580–450 BCE 971
  65. 53. Society, 580–450 BCE 985
  66. 54. Ritual and Cults, 580–450 BCE 1001
  67. 55. Economy, 580–450 BCE 1013
  68. 56. External relationships, 580–450 BCE 1031
  69. IV. Civilization
  70. 57. Late Classical and Hellenistic art, 450–250 BCE 1049
  71. 58. Handicraft, 450–250 BCE 1079
  72. 59. Society, 450-250 BCE 1101
  73. 60. Ritual and cults, 450–250 BCE 1117
  74. 61. Economy, 450–250 BCE 1129
  75. 62. External Relationships, 450–250 BCE 1141
  76. IV. Civilization
  77. 63. Art, 250–89 BCE 1161
  78. 64. Handicraft, 250–89 BCE 1173
  79. 65. Society, 250–89 BCE 1191
  80. 66. Ritual and Cults, 250–89 BCE 1203
  81. 67. Economy, 250–89 BCE 1215
  82. 68. External Relationships, 250–89 BCE 1223
  83. V. Topography of Etruria
  84. 69. The landscape and environment of Etruria 1239
  85. 70. Southern Etruria 1251
  86. 71. Northern Etruria 1299
  87. 72. Settlement Patterns and Land Use 1339
  88. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  89. 73. Southern Campania 1359
  90. 74. Northern Campania 1395
  91. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  92. 75. Emilia 1437
  93. 76-77. Romagna and the Marches 1453
  94. 78. Lombardy 1501
  95. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  96. 79. Central Italy and Rome 1533
  97. 80. Southern Italy 1551
  98. 81. Northern Italy 1565
  99. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  100. 82. South and southeast Central Europe 1585
  101. 83. Transalpine Regions 1607
  102. VI. Etruscans outside Etruria
  103. 84. Corsica 1641
  104. 85. Sicily 1653
  105. 86. Sardinia 1669
  106. 87. Greece. Aegean islands and Levant 1679
  107. 88. North Africa 1695
  108. 89. Southern France 1709
  109. 90. The Iberian Peninsula 1721
  110. Colour plates 1737
  111. Authors 1761
  112. Index 1767
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