Contents

Chapters in this book

1. Frontmatter i
2. Contents v
3. Acknowledgments vii
4. Part I The Concept of an Ecosystem
5. CHAPTER 1 Fundamental Ambiguities in the Ecosystem Concept 3
6. CHAPTER 2 A Historical Perspective on How Ecologists Have Viewed Ecosystems 20
7. Part II Preliminary Considerations
8. CHAPTER 3 The Ecosystem as a System 37
9. CHAPTER 4 The Concept of Hierarchy and Its Typical Application 55
10. Part III A Proposal for a Theory
11. CHAPTER 5 Some Elements of Hierarchy Theory 75
12. CHAPTER 6 Hierarchical Structure as the Consequence of Evolution in Open, Dissipative Systems 101
13. Part IV Applications of the Theory to Ecological Systems
14. CHAPTER 7 Ecosystems as Hierarchies of Species 125
15. CHAPTER 8 Ecosystems as Hierarchies of Processes 159
16. CHAPTER 9 Ecosystems as Dual Hierarchies 186
17. Literature Cited 213
18. Author Index 247
19. Subject Index 251