Chapters in this book

1. Frontmatter i
2. Contents v
3. Preface to the revised and updated edition vii
4. Acknowledgements x
5. Key actors and abbreviations xii
6. Map of Syria xviii
7. Introduction 1
8. Chapter One. Syria and the Middle East on the eve of civil war 10
9. Chapter Two. The Arab Spring comes to Syria 40
10. Chapter Three. Assad must stand aside? The international community’s ambivalent response 59
11. Chapter Four. International institutions and the slide to war 83
12. Chapter Five. A legitimate representative? Supporting and subverting Syria’s political opposition 105
13. Chapter Six. ‘Arm the rebels!’ Backing the armed opposition 125
14. Chapter Seven. To the hilt: Assad’s allies dig in 147
15. Chapter Eight. No red lines: The question of Western military intervention 168
16. Chapter Nine. Descent into chaos: Stalemate and the rise of ISIS 189
17. Chapter Ten. Enter Russia: Putin raises the stakes 213
18. Chapter Eleven. The wild card: Syria’s war in the age of Trump 232
19. Chapter Twelve. Conquest: Defeat for ISIS, Afrin and the rebels 254
20. Chapter Thirteen. Rebuilding without reconciling 278
21. Conclusion: The war that everyone lost 304
22. Notes 313
23. Bibliography 356
24. Index 382