Chapters in this book

1. Frontmatter i
2. Contents v
3. Preface to the paperback edition vii
4. Acknowledgements ix
5. List of key actors and abbreviations xi
6. Map of Syria xvi
7. Introduction 1
8. 1. Syria and the Middle East on the eve of civil war 10
9. 2. The Arab Spring comes to Syria 40
10. 3. Assad must stand aside? The international community’s ambivalent response 59
11. 4. International institutions and the slide to war 83
12. 5. A legitimate representative? Supporting and subverting Syria’s political opposition 105
13. 6. ‘Arm the rebels!’ Backing the armed opposition 125
14. 7. To the hilt: Assad’s allies dig 147
15. 8. No red lines: The question of Western military intervention 168
16. 9. Descent into chaos: Stalemate and the rise of ISIS 189
17. 10. Enter Russia: Putin raises the stakes 213
18. 11. The wild card: Syria’s war in the age of Trump 232
19. Conclusion: The war that everyone lost 254
20. Notes 263
21. Bibliography 298
22. Index 318