L3, the tertiary language
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Björn Hammarberg
Abstract
The fact that learners of a new language often already have experience of one or more other non-native languages has come into focus with the growing interest in multilingualism as a linguistic phenomenon and multilingual education as a practical concern. Third language or L3 has become a regular term fairly recently in dealing with the complex constellations of languages that occur with multilingual speakers and exploring the roles of these languages in the acquisition process. The purpose of the present chapter is to examine and discuss the construct of L3 in the context of the individual speaker’s multilingual repertoire and language learning. I first touch upon the wide occurrence of bi- and multilingualism in the world of today, especially as promoted by globalization and modern communication technology, and individual multilingualism (plurilingualism) as the normal form of linguistic competence that develops in human speakers. I then discuss the speaker/learner’s linguistic repertoire as a dynamic complex system, as well as the mutual connection between the developing repertoire and the process of language use and acquisition in specific situations in time. What we mean by L3 is seldom reflected on in the literature on so-called third language acquisition (TLA). In defining L3, we should ask what kind of concept we need in order to represent a speaker’s non-first non-native language. It should be a concept which is cognitively grounded and compatible with the terms L1 and L2 as these are commonly used in SLA studies. This leads to a definition of L3 and a discussion of its cognitive role as “tertiary” in relation to pre-existing L1s and L2s. Cross-linguistic influence becomes more complex when more background languages than a single L1 are involved, since both L1s and L2s can become activated in the process. Recent literature has explored a range of factors that may determine which language will dominate as source language when acquiring an L3, and formed conflicting hypotheses regarding their relative strength. I examine some problems that are reflected in this research, including the “L2 status issue”. This has implications for understanding the potential benefit of a multilingual language background in language learning.
Abstract
The fact that learners of a new language often already have experience of one or more other non-native languages has come into focus with the growing interest in multilingualism as a linguistic phenomenon and multilingual education as a practical concern. Third language or L3 has become a regular term fairly recently in dealing with the complex constellations of languages that occur with multilingual speakers and exploring the roles of these languages in the acquisition process. The purpose of the present chapter is to examine and discuss the construct of L3 in the context of the individual speaker’s multilingual repertoire and language learning. I first touch upon the wide occurrence of bi- and multilingualism in the world of today, especially as promoted by globalization and modern communication technology, and individual multilingualism (plurilingualism) as the normal form of linguistic competence that develops in human speakers. I then discuss the speaker/learner’s linguistic repertoire as a dynamic complex system, as well as the mutual connection between the developing repertoire and the process of language use and acquisition in specific situations in time. What we mean by L3 is seldom reflected on in the literature on so-called third language acquisition (TLA). In defining L3, we should ask what kind of concept we need in order to represent a speaker’s non-first non-native language. It should be a concept which is cognitively grounded and compatible with the terms L1 and L2 as these are commonly used in SLA studies. This leads to a definition of L3 and a discussion of its cognitive role as “tertiary” in relation to pre-existing L1s and L2s. Cross-linguistic influence becomes more complex when more background languages than a single L1 are involved, since both L1s and L2s can become activated in the process. Recent literature has explored a range of factors that may determine which language will dominate as source language when acquiring an L3, and formed conflicting hypotheses regarding their relative strength. I examine some problems that are reflected in this research, including the “L2 status issue”. This has implications for understanding the potential benefit of a multilingual language background in language learning.
Chapters in this book
- Prelim pages i
- Table of contents vii
- Introduction 1
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Part I. Policy perspectives
- Language education in and for a multilingual Europe 33
- Multilingualism and education in sub-Saharan Africa 57
- Language policy, language study, and heritage language education in the U.S. 77
- Globalization, national identity, and multiculturalism and multilingualism 99
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Part II. Theoretical perspectives
- L3, the tertiary language 127
- Plurilingual identities 151
- Models of multilingual competence 173
- The multilingual turn in foreign language education 191
- Linguistic landscaping 213
- Identity and investment in multilingual classrooms 237
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Part III. Empirical perspectives
- The acquisition of English as an L3 from a sociocultural point of view 255
- Affordances of multilingual learning situations – Possibilities and constraints for foreign language classrooms 281
- L1 effects in the early L3 acquisition of vocabulary and grammar 305
- “One day a father and his son going fishing on the Lake.” – A study on the use of the progressive aspect of monolingual and bilingual learners of English 331
- English as a lingua franca at the multilingual university 359
- Learning English demonstrative pronouns on bilingual substrate 381
- Contributors 407
- Subject index 419
Chapters in this book
- Prelim pages i
- Table of contents vii
- Introduction 1
-
Part I. Policy perspectives
- Language education in and for a multilingual Europe 33
- Multilingualism and education in sub-Saharan Africa 57
- Language policy, language study, and heritage language education in the U.S. 77
- Globalization, national identity, and multiculturalism and multilingualism 99
-
Part II. Theoretical perspectives
- L3, the tertiary language 127
- Plurilingual identities 151
- Models of multilingual competence 173
- The multilingual turn in foreign language education 191
- Linguistic landscaping 213
- Identity and investment in multilingual classrooms 237
-
Part III. Empirical perspectives
- The acquisition of English as an L3 from a sociocultural point of view 255
- Affordances of multilingual learning situations – Possibilities and constraints for foreign language classrooms 281
- L1 effects in the early L3 acquisition of vocabulary and grammar 305
- “One day a father and his son going fishing on the Lake.” – A study on the use of the progressive aspect of monolingual and bilingual learners of English 331
- English as a lingua franca at the multilingual university 359
- Learning English demonstrative pronouns on bilingual substrate 381
- Contributors 407
- Subject index 419
